Leviathan | Project Gutenberg

• The transcriber details the technical challenges of converting the first edition of Leviathan into a digital format while preserving its original flavor.
• Specific formatting choices were made to handle Hobbes's extensive and often idiosyncratic use of italics, capitalization, and marginalia.
• The text includes a dedication to Francis Godolphin, honoring his late brother Sidney Godolphin for his inherent virtues and support of the author's studies.
• The transcriber suggests that the text is best understood when read aloud or sub-vocalized to capture the rhythm of the original punctuation and emphasis.
• Hobbes's original marginal notes, which served as a pseudo-index and conceptual guide, have been integrated as paragraph headers in this edition.

For there is not any vertue that disposeth a man, either to the service of God, or to the service of his Country, to Civill Society, or private Friendship, that did not manifestly appear in his conversation, not as acquired by necessity, or affected upon occasion, but inhaerent, and shining in a generous constitution of his nature.

• The author acknowledges the difficulty of navigating between the opposing demands of absolute liberty and absolute authority.
• He argues that efforts to strengthen civil power should not be condemned by the very power they seek to support.
• The discourse focuses on the abstract seat of power rather than the specific individuals who occupy it.
• Hobbes anticipates controversy regarding his unconventional interpretation of Holy Scriptures used to challenge civil authority.
• The text outlines subsequent chapters focusing on human imagination, reason, science, and the internal origins of voluntary motions.

For in a way beset with those that contend on one side for too great Liberty, and on the other side for too much Authority, ’tis hard to passe between the points of both unwounded.

• The text outlines the psychological drivers of human behavior, categorizing internal motions like appetite, desire, and aversion as the roots of action.
• It explores the social dynamics of power and honor, suggesting that humans possess a restless and perpetual desire for power that only ceases in death.
• The author examines the natural condition of mankind as a state of war where equality leads to diffidence and mutual distrust.
• A framework of natural laws is established, emphasizing that peace is achieved through the transfer of rights and the binding nature of covenants.
• The concept of justice is defined not as an inherent moral quality but as the performance of valid covenants made between individuals.

In such a warre, nothing is unjust; the passions that incline men to peace.

• The primary purpose of a commonwealth is to provide security and peace, which cannot be achieved through the law of nature or small groups alone.
• A sovereign's power is absolute and irrevocable, meaning subjects cannot change the form of government or accuse the sovereign of injustice once the institution is established.
• The sovereign holds total authority over judicature, the making of war and peace, the selection of ministers, and the censorship of doctrines taught to the public.
• True liberty for a subject exists only in the 'silence of the law,' or in matters where the sovereign has not prescribed a specific rule of conduct.
• Subjects retain a natural right to defend their own bodies, even against the sovereign, as no man can be bound by covenant to kill or hurt himself.

The Greatest Liberty Of Subjects, Dependeth On The Silence Of The Law

• The text outlines the structure of various human systems, distinguishing between lawful political bodies and irregular private leagues.
• It establishes that all private land ownership and property rights originate from the arbitrary distribution and authority of the sovereign.
• Money is metaphorically described as the blood of the commonwealth, serving as the essential medium for public use and nutrition.
• The validity of law is strictly tied to the sovereign's power, requiring that laws be clearly made known and interpreted only by authorized judges.
• Criminality is defined by the existence of civil law, where ignorance of nature's laws offers no excuse, though certain circumstances may extenuate a crime.

Mony The Bloud Of A Common-wealth The Conduits And Way Of Mony To The Publique Use

• The text outlines the legal and moral boundaries of punishment, asserting that harm inflicted without a public hearing or for the purpose of future good is not true punishment but an act of hostility.
• It identifies several factors that lead to the dissolution of a commonwealth, including the private judgment of good and evil and the subjection of sovereign power to civil laws.
• The sovereign representative is tasked with the duty of educating the populace in the principles of absolute sovereignty to prevent the imitation of neighbor nations and the rise of popular men.
• A transition is made into theological politics, examining the Kingdom of God as a civil sovereignty established by pact rather than a mere metaphor.
• The text challenges traditional views on the authorship of the Bible, suggesting that the Pentateuch and other historical books were written much later than the figures they describe.

Hurt inflicted for a fact done before the Law, no Punishment: The Representative of the Common-wealth unpunishable: Hurt to revolted Subjects is done by right of War, not by way of Punishment.

• The text outlines the definitions of prophecy and miracles, emphasizing that a miracle's status often depends on the observer's ignorance of natural causes.
• It explores the biblical concepts of eternal life, hell, and salvation, positioning them within a framework of terrestrial and political reality.
• The author defines the Church and the Christian Commonwealth as a single entity, arguing that religious and civil authority must be unified under a sovereign.
• Historical analysis of the Kingdom of God shows that figures like Abraham and Moses held sole authority to interpret God's word for their people.
• The office of Christ is described as subordinate to God the Father, with a mission to persuade rather than compel through civil law.
• Ecclesiastical power is redefined as the power to teach rather than the power to command, which remains the exclusive right of civil princes.

A Christian Common-wealth, and a Church all one.

• The text asserts that a Christian civil sovereign holds the ultimate right to appoint pastors and execute pastoral functions within their own dominion.
• Salvation is simplified to two essential components: faith in Christ and obedience to both God and the civil sovereign.
• Spiritual darkness is defined as the result of misinterpreting scriptures, specifically regarding the nature of God's kingdom and the role of the clergy.
• The author critiques the Catholic Church's use of 'consecration' as a form of 'conjuration' or incantation, likening certain rituals to pagan practices.
• The immortality of the soul is argued to be a gift of grace rather than an inherent property of human nature.

The Kingdome Of Darknesse What The Church Not Yet Fully Freed Of Darknesse Four Causes Of Spirituall Darknesse Errors From Misinterpreting The Scriptures, Concerning The Kingdome Of God As That The Kingdome Of God Is The Present Church And That The Pope Is His Vicar Generall And That The Pastors Are The Clergy Error From Mistaking Consecration For Conjuration Incantation In The Ceremonies Of Baptisme In Marriage, In Visitation Of The Sick, And In Consecration Of Places Errors From Mistaking Eternall Life, And Everlasting Death As The Doctrine Of Purgatory, And Exorcismes, And Invocation Of Saints The Texts Alledged For The Doctrines Aforementioned Have Been Answered Before Answer To The Text On Which Beza Infereth Explication Of The Place In Mark 9.1 Abuse Of Some Other Texts In Defence Of The Power Of The Pope The Manner Of Consecrations In The Scripture, Was Without Exorcisms The Immortality Of Mans Soule, Not Proved By Scripture To Be Of Nature, But Of Grace Answer Of The Texts Alledged For Purgatory Places Of The New Testament For Purgatory Answered Baptisme For The Dead, How Understood CHAPTER XLV. OF DAEMONOLOGY, AND OTHER RELIQUES OF THE RELIGION OF THE GENTILES What Were The Daemons Of The Ancients Why Our Saviour Controlled It Not The Scriptures Doe Not Teach That Spirits Are Incorporeall The Power Of Casting Out Devills, Not The Same It Was In The Primitive Church Another Relique Of Gentilisme, Worshipping Images, Left In The Church, Not Brought Into It Answer To Certain Seeming Texts For Images Distinction Between Divine And Civill Worship Answer To The Argument From The Cherubins, And Brazen Serpent Painting Of Fancies No Idolatry: Abusing Them To Religious Worship Is How Idolatry Was Left In The Church Wax Candles, And Torches Lighted CHAPTER XLVI.

• The author proposes a mechanical view of life, suggesting that biological organisms are essentially complex engines moved by internal springs and wheels.
• The Commonwealth or State is defined as an 'Artificial Man' created by human art for the purpose of protection and collective defense.
• Political structures are mapped to biological functions, where sovereignty acts as the soul, magistrates as joints, and reward or punishment as the nervous system.
• Civil war is characterized as the death of this artificial organism, while the original social covenants represent the divine act of creation.
• The text challenges the notion that wisdom is gained merely by observing others, suggesting instead a deeper study of the 'matter' of man himself.

For what is the Heart, but a Spring; and the Nerves, but so many Strings; and the Joynts, but so many Wheeles, giving motion to the whole Body, such as was intended by the Artificer?

• The principle of 'Nosce Teipsum' or 'Read Thy Self' suggests that by examining one's own internal passions and thoughts, an individual can understand the universal motivations of all humanity.
• While the objects of human desire and fear vary based on individual education and constitution, the underlying passions themselves remain consistent across the species.
• A ruler must go beyond understanding specific acquaintances and instead learn to read 'Mankind' as a whole by looking inward at their own nature.
• All human thoughts originate from sense, which is produced by external objects pressing upon the bodily organs and creating an internal resistance or 'counter-pressure'.
• The perception of light, sound, or heat is described as a 'seeming' or 'fancy' caused by the heart's endeavor to deliver itself from the pressure of external bodies.

He that is to govern a whole Nation, must read in himselfe, not this, or that particular man; but Man-kind; which though it be hard to do, harder than to learn any Language, or Science.

• Sense is defined as the pressure of external matter upon the organs, where motion produces nothing but further motion within the human body.
• The author distinguishes between the object and the 'fancy' it begets, noting that qualities like color and sound exist in the observer rather than the object itself.
• The text critiques the established 'Philosophy-schooles' for using insignificant speech and teaching that objects emit mystical species to facilitate vision and understanding.
• The principle of inertia is introduced, arguing that objects in motion remain in motion eternally unless hindered by an external force.
• Imagination, or 'fancy,' is described as the lingering internal motion of a sense impression that remains after the original object has been removed.
• The author rejects the idea that inanimate objects possess an 'appetite' for rest, attributing such beliefs to humans incorrectly projecting their own lassitude onto nature.

For men measure, not onely other men, but all other things, by themselves: and because they find themselves subject after motion to pain, and lassitude, think every thing els growes weary of motion, and seeks repose of its own accord.

• Imagination is defined as the lingering but fading motion of sensory perception after the external object has been removed.
• The weakening of mental images over time is compared to the way the sun's brilliance obscures the stars or how distance makes physical objects appear dim.
• Memory and imagination are fundamentally the same phenomenon, distinguished only by whether one is focusing on the image itself or the fact that it is fading.
• Simple imagination reproduces single past perceptions, while compounded imagination combines different memories to create fictions like centaurs.
• Dreams are imaginations that occur during sleep, triggered by internal bodily agitations rather than external sensory input.

So that Imagination and Memory, are but one thing, which for divers considerations hath divers names.

• Dreams appear clearer than waking thoughts because the numbing of the senses allows internal impressions to dominate without external interference.
• The author distinguishes waking from dreaming by noting that waking thoughts are more coherent and allow for the recognition of a dream's absurdity.
• Physical distempers of the body, such as cold or internal heat, reciprocally trigger specific emotional imaginations like fear or anger during sleep.
• The difficulty in distinguishing dreams from reality often occurs when a person is troubled or falls asleep unintentionally, such as nodding in a chair.
• Historical visions and supernatural sightings are often merely dreams or fancies born from fear, superstition, and the darkness of the night.
• The inability to differentiate between strong fancies and sensory reality contributed significantly to the development of ancient pagan religions.

And hence it is, that lying cold breedeth Dreams of Feare, and raiseth the thought and Image of some fearfull object.

• The author argues that belief in witches, fairies, and ghosts is often maintained by 'ghostly men' to preserve the influence of religious rituals like exorcism.
• Witches are viewed not as having real power, but as being justly punished for their malicious intent and their false belief in their own supernatural abilities.
• Eliminating superstitious fears and false prophecies would make the populace more rational and better suited for civil obedience.
• The 'Train of Thoughts' or mental discourse is explained as a physical process where one imagination follows another based on prior sensory experience.
• Human understanding is distinguished from that of animals by the ability to organize conceptions through the use of names and speech.

In so much as the former comming again to take place, and be praedominant, the later followeth, by coherence of the matter moved, is such manner, as water upon a plain Table is drawn which way any one part of it is guided by the finger.

• Mental discourse consists of a succession of thoughts that follow one another based on previous associations and experiences.
• Unguided thoughts are inconstant and lack a governing passion, resembling the wandering nature of dreams or a lute played out of tune.
• Regulated thoughts are directed by desire or fear, which act as an anchor to bring the mind back to a specific goal or end.
• Human curiosity is unique in its ability to imagine a thing and then seek out all the possible effects or uses that can be produced by it.
• The faculty of invention and remembrance involves a methodical 'hunting out' of causes and effects across time and place.

For in a Discourse of our present civill warre, what could seem more impertinent, than to ask (as one did) what was the value of a Roman Penny?

• Human foresight is described as a mental search process similar to a spaniel ranging a field or a person sweeping a room for a lost jewel.
• Prudence is defined as a presumption of future events based on the observation of past sequences, such as the progression from crime to execution.
• The author posits that the future has no actual being in nature and exists only as a mental fiction constructed from past experiences.
• While experience grants a person more 'signs' to guess the future, all such conjectures remain fallacious and uncertain compared to divine providence.
• Prudence is not a uniquely human trait, as many animals demonstrate a greater ability to pursue their own good through observation than human children do.

The Present onely has a being in Nature; things Past have a being in the Memory onely, but things To Come have no being at all; the Future being but a fiction of the mind.

• Human imagination is strictly limited to the finite, meaning we cannot truly conceive of the infinite or the nature of God, using such names only for honor rather than comprehension.
• All human thoughts originate from sensory perception, making it impossible to conceive of anything that does not occupy a specific place or possess a determinate magnitude.
• Speech is identified as the most noble invention of mankind, serving as the essential foundation for society, contracts, and peace, without which humans would live like wild animals.
• While God provided the initial instruction for naming creatures to Adam, the complexity of language evolved over time through human experience and the necessity of communication.
• The diversity of modern languages is attributed to the divine intervention at the Tower of Babel, which forced the dispersion of mankind and the subsequent development of new tongues.

But the most noble and profitable invention of all other, was that of Speech, consisting of Names or Apellations, and their Connexion; whereby men register their Thoughts; recall them when they are past; and also declare them one to another for mutuall utility and conversation; without which, there had been amongst men, neither Common-wealth, nor Society, nor Contract, nor Peace, no more than amongst Lyons, Bears, and Wolves.

• Speech serves as a mental registry, allowing individuals to record their thoughts as marks or notes to prevent them from slipping out of memory.
• The social function of language is to act as a system of signs, enabling people to communicate their conceptions, desires, and fears for mutual assistance.
• Hobbes identifies four primary abuses of speech: self-deception through inconsistent definitions, the use of metaphors to deceive others, lying about one's will, and using words to cause grief.
• The text posits that universality exists only in names rather than in things themselves, as every object in the world is individual and singular.
• Names are categorized by their extent, where universal names like 'Body' encompass more specific names like 'Man' based on shared qualities or accidents.

For seeing nature hath armed living creatures, some with teeth, some with horns, and some with hands, to grieve an enemy, it is but an abuse of Speech, to grieve him with the tongue.

• Speech allows the mind to transition from observing particular instances to establishing universal rules that apply across all times and places.
• Without the use of numerical words, humans are unable to perform complex arithmetic or keep track of time beyond simple repetition.
• Truth and falsehood are exclusively attributes of speech rather than inherent qualities of physical objects or events.
• The precision of geometry is attributed to its reliance on settled definitions, which serve as the necessary foundation for all scientific reckoning.
• Failure to define terms accurately leads to an accumulation of errors, leaving the thinker entangled in words like a bird caught in lime-twigs.

For True and False are attributes of Speech, not of things. And where Speech in not, there is neither Truth nor Falshood.

• The foundation of human error often lies in failing to verify the initial definitions and premises found in books.
• True science is built upon the right definition of names, while false tenets arise from relying on authority rather than personal meditation.
• Ignorance occupies a middle ground between true science and erroneous doctrine, as nature itself is not subject to absurdity.
• Words serve as counters for wise men to calculate with, but they become the currency of fools who value them based on the prestige of authors.
• Reasoning is described as a form of mental accounting or 'summing up' the consequences of names and their various accidents.

For words are wise mens counters, they do but reckon by them: but they are the mony of fooles, that value them by the authority of an Aristotle, a Cicero, or a Thomas, or any other Doctor whatsoever, if but a man.

• Human perception distinguishes between the physical object and the internal 'fancy' or conception, such as the difference between a thing and its color or sound.
• Language includes names for names and speeches, such as 'Universal' or 'Syllogism,' which allow for the categorization of abstract thought.
• Negative names like 'Nothing' or 'Infinite' do not represent physical things but serve as essential tools for correcting logical reckoning.
• Absurdity arises from combining contradictory names, such as 'Incorporeal Substance' or 'Round Quadrangle,' which result in meaningless sounds.
• Understanding is defined as the specific conception caused by speech, suggesting it is a faculty unique to mankind.
• The meaning of words regarding passions is often inconstant because different men are affected differently by the same objects.

For example if it be a false affirmation to say A Quadrangle Is Round, the word Round Quadrangle signifies nothing; but is a meere sound.

• Human language is inherently subjective because individual constitutions and prejudices cause different men to give the same things different names based on their passions.
• Reasoning is defined strictly as a mathematical process of addition and subtraction applied to the consequences of general names.
• The application of reason extends beyond numbers to geometry, logic, politics, and law, where conclusions are reached by summing or subtracting propositions and facts.
• Reason itself is an infallible art, yet individual practitioners are prone to error just as even the best arithmeticians may miscalculate a sum.
• In cases of intellectual controversy, parties must agree upon an arbitrator whose reason serves as the standard, as no single person's reason constitutes absolute certainty.

For one man calleth Wisdome, what another calleth Feare; and one Cruelty, what another Justice; one Prodigality, what another Magnanimity; one Gravity, what another Stupidity, &c.

• True reasoning requires starting from first definitions and settled significations of names rather than relying on the authority of others.
• Claiming one's own passion or private reason as the universal standard is compared to a card player trying to make whatever suit they hold most of the trump.
• A distinction is drawn between error, which is a mistaken conjecture about facts, and absurdity, which is the use of meaningless or contradictory language.
• Human excellence lies in the ability to reduce observed consequences into general rules and theorems through the use of words.
• Accepting conclusions without tracing them back to their first principles is not true knowledge but merely a form of belief or trust.

it is as intolerable in the society of men, as it is in play after trump is turned, to use for trump on every occasion, that suite whereof they have most in their hand.

• Man possesses the unique privilege of reason but is also the only creature capable of falling into profound absurdity.
• Philosophers are particularly prone to error because they fail to begin their reasoning with clear definitions and settled significations of words.
• Absurdity arises from seven specific linguistic errors, including the misuse of metaphors and the misapplication of names to different categories of being.
• Reason is not an innate faculty like sense or memory, but a skill attained through industry and the methodical connection of names into assertions.
• Science is defined as the knowledge of consequences and the dependence of facts upon one another, rather than just the memory of past events.

For it is most true that Cicero sayth of them somewhere; that there can be nothing so absurd, but may be found in the books of Philosophers.

• Reason is not an innate faculty present at birth but is acquired through the use of speech and the understanding of cause and effect.
• Most people rely on natural prudence derived from experience rather than science, which requires a rigorous understanding of definitions and first principles.
• Ignorance is preferable to false knowledge, as relying on absurd general rules leads to greater error than having no rules at all.
• The author distinguishes between Prudence, which is based on experience, and Sapience, which is the infallible certainty provided by science.
• True science is demonstrated by the ability to teach and prove truths to others, whereas uncertain knowledge relies on occasional successful outcomes.
• The misuse of language through metaphors and ambiguous words leads to intellectual wandering, contention, and social sedition.

For ignorance of causes, and of rules, does not set men so farre out of their way, as relying on false rules, and taking for causes of what they aspire to, those that are not so, but rather causes of the contrary.

• The author distinguishes between vital motions, such as breathing and circulation, and voluntary motions like speaking or moving limbs.
• Voluntary motion is defined as beginning with imagination, which serves as the internal precursor to all visible physical actions.
• Small, invisible internal movements that precede outward action are termed 'Endeavour,' which manifests as either appetite or aversion.
• Appetite and aversion represent the basic physical motions of approaching or retiring from an object, regardless of whether the object is present or absent.
• The text critiques the 'Schooles' for using the term 'metaphorical motion,' arguing that while words can be metaphorical, physical bodies and their movements cannot.

For though Words may be called metaphoricall; Bodies, and Motions cannot.

• Human appetites and aversions are in constant flux due to the continual mutation of the physical body, making universal agreement on objects of desire impossible.
• The terms good, evil, and contemptible are entirely relative to the individual user, as there is no inherent quality in objects themselves that defines these categories.
• In the absence of a common-wealth, the individual is the sole judge of good and evil, but within a society, this rule is deferred to a representative or arbitrator.
• Pleasure and pain are defined as the internal sense of vital motion being either helped or hindered by external objects.
• The Latin concepts of Pulchrum and Turpe represent the promise of good or evil, manifesting as beauty or deformity in the appearance of things.

For these words of Good, evill, and Contemptible, are ever used with relation to the person that useth them: There being nothing simply and absolutely so; nor any common Rule of Good and evill, to be taken from the nature of the objects themselves.

• Pleasures are categorized into those of the sense, arising from present objects, and those of the mind, which arise from the foresight of consequences.
• Simple passions like appetite, desire, and aversion are renamed based on the likelihood of attaining an object, such as hope and despair.
• Social and moral labels like covetousness and ambition are often used pejoratively because they involve competition for limited resources.
• Curiosity is identified as a uniquely human 'lust of the mind' that distinguishes mankind from animals through the persistent desire to know causes.
• The author defines complex emotional states like courage, indignation, and magnanimity as specific combinations of desire, opinion, and scale.

Curiosity; such as is in no living creature but Man; so that Man is distinguished, not onely by his Reason; but also by this singular Passion from other Animals.

• Panique Terror is defined as a collective fear where individuals follow the example of others without knowing the actual cause, occurring only within a multitude.
• Vaine-glory is a joy based on the flattery of others or false self-supposition, which unlike true confidence, fails to produce actual attempts or actions.
• Laughter is described as 'Sudden Glory,' arising from a self-applause triggered by observing the deformities or imperfections of others.
• Pitty, or compassion, is a grief for another's calamity rooted in the imagination that a similar misfortune could befall oneself.
• Cruelty is characterized as a contempt for the suffering of others, often proceeding from a false sense of security regarding one's own fortune.

Sudden glory, is the passion which maketh those Grimaces called LAUGHTER; and is caused either by some sudden act of their own, that pleaseth them; or by the apprehension of some deformed thing in another, by comparison whereof they suddenly applaud themselves.

• Emulation is defined as the desire to equal a competitor through self-improvement, whereas envy is the desire to hinder or supplant them.
• Deliberation is the internal process where alternating appetites, aversions, hopes, and fears compete until a decision is made or the action is deemed impossible.
• The author defines the Will not as a rational faculty, but simply as the final appetite or aversion that immediately precedes an action.
• Because deliberation is a succession of appetites and aversions common to all living things, the author concludes that beasts possess the capacity for Will.
• Voluntary actions include those driven by fear or aversion, as the final decision to act to avoid a consequence still constitutes the Will.

And it is called DELIBERATION; because it is a putting an end to the Liberty we had of doing, or omitting, according to our own Appetite, or Aversion.

• Speech acts such as commands, prayers, and interrogations serve as voluntary expressions of human passions and desires.
• True deliberation involves weighing a long chain of consequences to determine if an action results in an apparent good or evil.
• Felicity is defined as the continual success in obtaining desired things, rather than a state of static mental tranquility.
• Life is characterized as perpetual motion, meaning that as long as one lives, desire and fear are inevitable and necessary.
• The final opinion reached in a chain of mental discourse regarding truth is defined as Judgment, mirroring how the Will is the final appetite in deliberation.

For there is no such thing as perpetual Tranquillity of mind, while we live here; because Life itself is but Motion, and can never be without Desire, nor without Feare, no more than without Sense.

• Absolute knowledge is limited to sensory experience and memory, whereas discourse only provides conditional knowledge of consequences.
• Science is defined as the conditional knowledge of the consequences of words, beginning with precise definitions and proceeding through syllogisms.
• The concept of conscience originated from shared knowledge between witnesses but has been metaphorically extended to private thoughts and personal opinions.
• Belief and faith are distinguished from science because they rely on the perceived honesty and ability of a person rather than the logical necessity of the thing itself.
• The phrase 'believe in' is identified as a unique linguistic construction of theologians, distinct from the secular practice of believing a person.

And last of all, men, vehemently in love with their own new opinions, (though never so absurd,) and obstinately bent to maintain them, gave those their opinions also that reverenced name of Conscience.

• Faith is defined not by the content of the message but by the authority of the person who speaks it, meaning trust in scripture is effectively trust in the Church.
• Disbelieving a historical or religious account is not an affront to God or the historical figure, but rather a lack of trust in the historian or messenger.
• Intellectual virtue is defined by eminence and comparison, as qualities only become prized when they are not equally distributed among all men.
• Natural wit consists of the celerity of imagination and a steady direction toward a goal, driven largely by the diversity of human passions.
• A 'good wit' or fancy is the ability to observe rare similarities between things, while 'judgment' is the capacity to discern differences and dissimilitudes.

If Livy say the Gods made once a Cow speak, and we believe it not; wee distrust not God therein, but Livy.

• Judgement and discretion are valued as virtues in their own right, whereas fancy is only commended when guided by a steady purpose.
• A great fancy without the direction of judgement is described as a form of madness where the speaker loses themselves in endless digressions.
• Different forms of discourse require different balances of these traits, with poetry favoring fancy and history or demonstration requiring eminent judgement.
• Metaphors are strictly excluded from rigorous searches for truth because they openly profess deceit and undermine sound reasoning.
• The social acceptability of a discourse depends on discretion regarding time, place, and person, distinguishing professional analysis from offensive extravagance.

But without Steddinesse, and Direction to some End, a great Fancy is one kind of Madnesse; such as they have, that entring into any discourse, are snatched from their purpose, by every thing that comes in their thought.

• True wit requires discretion and judgment, as fancy without judgment is not considered wit, whereas judgment without fancy still holds value.
• Prudence is defined as a form of wit based on experience and memory, where an individual observes how various things conduce to a specific design.
• Craft is characterized as 'crooked wisdom' or the use of dishonest means, which the author identifies as a sign of pusillanimity rather than true strength.
• The fundamental differences in human intellectual ability are rooted in the passions, specifically the varying degrees of desire for power.
• Thoughts serve as scouts and spies for our desires, meaning that a lack of strong passion results in a lack of mental quickness or steadiness.
• Extreme or vehement passions that exceed the ordinary are categorized by the author as various forms of madness.

For the Thoughts, are to the Desires, as Scouts, and Spies, to range abroad, and find the way to the things Desired.

• Madness is defined as the outward manifestation of excessive or violent passions, such as pride, dejection, or habitual revenge.
• Pride and self-conceit often lead to rage and fury, while excessive dejection results in various forms of melancholy and superstitious fear.
• Individual passions, even when subtle, contribute to the collective madness and seditious roaring of a troubled nation.
• The claim of private divine inspiration is identified as a specific form of madness rooted in self-admiration and the failure of reason.
• The effects of alcohol mirror the symptoms of madness, suggesting that both states arise from a similar disruption of the body's organs.

For as in the middest of the sea, though a man perceive no sound of that part of the water next him; yet he is well assured, that part contributes as much, to the Roaring of the Sea, as any other part.

• The author argues that unguided passions are essentially a form of madness, often revealed when wine removes the mask of dissimulation.
• Historical perspectives on insanity are divided between those who attribute it to internal passions and those who believe in external demonic possession.
• Ancient Greek examples illustrate how environmental factors and intense emotions, such as those triggered by a tragedy, were mistaken for supernatural influence.
• A clever magistrate once cured a wave of suicides among young maidens by threatening to display their naked bodies, proving their actions were driven by passion rather than demons.
• The text critiques the Jewish and Gentile tendency to personify natural conditions, such as diseases or virtues, as literal spirits or 'daemons.'
• Scriptural references to 'spirits' are interpreted not as literal entities inhabiting a person, but as metaphors for a person's own mental inclinations or talents.

For, (I believe) the most sober men, when they walk alone without care and employment of the mind, would be unwilling the vanity and Extravagance of their thoughts at that time should be publiquely seen.

• The author argues that the ancient Jewish belief in demonic possession stemmed from a lack of curiosity regarding natural causes for mental defects.
• Biblical accounts of possession are reinterpreted as descriptions of madness or extraordinary behavior rather than supernatural inhabitation.
• Christ's practice of speaking to diseases as if they were persons is explained as a rhetorical method of healing rather than a confirmation of literal demons.
• The Scripture's primary purpose is to teach obedience to God, leaving the specific mechanics of nature and philosophy to human reason.
• Parables involving unclean spirits are interpreted as metaphors for the return of human lusts and vices rather than literal spiritual entities.

For is not Christ also said (Math. 8.26.) to have rebuked the winds? Is not he said also (Luk. 4. 39.) to rebuke a Fever? Yet this does not argue that a Fever is a Divel.

• Absurdity arises when men use words that have no real significance, often due to rote repetition or a deliberate intent to deceive through obscurity.
• The author critiques Scholastic philosophers for using incomprehensible jargon regarding metaphysical topics that cannot be translated into intelligible language.
• Knowledge is divided into two primary categories: Knowledge of Fact, which is absolute and based on sense or memory, and Science, which is the conditional knowledge of consequences.
• History serves as the register for Knowledge of Fact, split into Natural History and Civil History based on whether the subject depends on human will.
• Philosophy is defined as the register of Science, focusing on the demonstrations of how one affirmation logically follows another.

When men write whole volumes of such stuffe, are they not Mad, or intend to make others so?

• The text outlines a hierarchical classification of knowledge, dividing philosophy into the study of quantity, motion, and the qualities of bodies.
• Natural power is defined as the eminence of physical or mental faculties, including strength, prudence, and eloquence.
• Instrumental power consists of acquired means such as riches, reputation, and friends, which serve as tools to gain further influence.
• The greatest human power is achieved through the unification of many individuals' strengths into a single entity, such as a commonwealth or faction.
• Power is described as having a self-reinforcing nature, growing more rapidly as it advances, much like the acceleration of falling heavy bodies.

For the nature of Power, is in this point, like to Fame, increasing as it proceeds; or like the motion of heavy bodies, which the further they go, make still the more hast.

• Power is fundamentally defined as the reputation or possession of qualities that secure the assistance and service of others.
• The value or worth of an individual is not absolute but is determined by the price others are willing to pay for the use of their power.
• Science is considered a small power because it is not easily recognized by the public, whereas the practical arts of war are highly esteemed.
• Honour and dishonour are the external manifestations of the value we place on others based on our need for their protection or aid.
• Dignity is defined as the public worth of a man as established by the commonwealth through titles and offices of command.

For let a man (as most men do,) rate themselves as the highest Value they can; yet their true Value is no more than it is esteemed by others.

• Honour is defined as a formal acknowledgement of another person's power, wisdom, or virtue through specific social signs.
• Common social interactions, such as listening to counsel or imitating behavior, serve as natural signs of honour by validating the subject's judgment.
• In a commonwealth, the sovereign has the unique authority to define arbitrary signs of civil honour, such as titles, offices, or specific garments.
• Honourable qualities like riches, courage, and good fortune are valued primarily because they serve as visible arguments of an individual's power.
• Dishonour arises from actions that signal an undervaluing of others, such as dissent, neglect, or the display of poverty and fear.

To hearken to a mans counsell, or discourse of what kind soever, is to Honour; as a signe we think him wise, or eloquent, or witty. To sleep, or go forth, or talk the while, is to Dishonour.

• Honour is fundamentally defined as the outward sign or opinion of an individual's power, regardless of whether that power is used for just or unjust ends.
• Irresolution is viewed as dishonourable because it suggests a man overvalues trivial impediments, revealing a lack of internal strength or 'pusillanimity.'
• Gravity and seriousness are only honourable when they appear to stem from genuine employment of the mind rather than a calculated desire to seem important.
• Historical examples, such as the myths of the Greek gods and the practice of piracy, demonstrate that great actions were traditionally honoured for the strength they displayed rather than their morality.
• The concept of hereditary coats of arms and gentry is traced back to ancient German customs, serving as a lasting social marker of ancestral privilege and power.
• Private duels remain honourable in the eyes of the public because they are perceived as effects of courage and skill, even when they are technically unlawful.

For the gravity of the Former, is like the steddinesse of a Ship laden with Merchandise; but of the later, like the steddinesse of a Ship ballasted with Sand, and other trash.

• Heraldry and coats of arms originated specifically with the ancient Germans to distinguish lords in battle and were later inherited by their descendants.
• The office of the Herald, or 'Here-alt,' was established to manage and distinguish the diverse family scutchions as small tribes merged into larger monarchies.
• Ancient titles of honor such as Duke, Count, and Marquis were originally functional military offices and commands derived from Roman and German militia customs.
• Over time, these functional roles evolved into mere titles of precedence and social order, often divorced from actual land possession or military command.
• The concept of worthiness is defined as a specific fitness or aptitude for a particular role, distinct from a person's general value or merit.

And the issue of these Lords, is the great and antient Gentry; which for the most part bear living creatures, noted for courage, and rapine.

• Worthiness is defined by the possession of qualities required for a specific role or use of riches, but it does not constitute a legal right or merit without a prior contract.
• Human felicity is not a static state of satisfaction or a 'greatest good,' but a continuous progress of desire from one object to another.
• All mankind shares a perpetual and restless desire for power after power that only ends in death, driven by the need to secure current well-being.
• Competition for power, riches, and honor naturally leads to contention and war as individuals seek to supplant or repel their rivals.
• The desire for ease and the fear of death dispose men toward civil obedience, as they seek protection from a common power rather than relying on their own industry.

So that in the first place, I put for a generall inclination of all mankind, a perpetuall and restlesse desire of Power after power, that ceaseth onely in Death.

• Military ambition often drives men to stir up war, as there is no honor for soldiers in peace and conflict provides a chance to 'shuffle the deck' of fortune.
• The desire for knowledge and the arts of peace encourages obedience to a central power because these pursuits require the leisure and security that only a state can provide.
• Receiving unrequitable benefits from an equal leads to secret hatred, as the recipient feels like a desperate debtor who wishes their creditor would disappear.
• Fear of oppression and a lack of confidence in one's own cleverness often lead men to strike first in a conflict rather than risk being outmaneuvered by a subtler opponent.
• Vain-glorious men who rely on flattery rather than true ability are prone to rash starts but quickly retreat when faced with genuine danger or difficulty.

To have received from one, to whom we think our selves equall, greater benefits than there is hope to Requite, disposeth to counterfiet love; but really secret hatred; and puts a man into the estate of a desperate debtor, that in declining the sight of his creditor, tacitely wishes him there, where he might never see him more.

• Ambition often stems from a high opinion of one's own wisdom, leading eloquent speakers to seek public office to validate their perceived intelligence.
• Pusillanimity and irresolution cause men to miss vital opportunities by over-analyzing trivial differences when the time for action is at hand.
• Ignorance of natural causes and the true meaning of words forces individuals to rely on the authority and potential nonsense of others.
• People frequently rename things based on their passions, such as calling a private view an 'opinion' when they agree and 'heresy' when they do not.
• A lack of understanding regarding the origins of justice leads people to mistake mere custom and legal precedent for moral rightness.

As they that approve a private opinion, call it Opinion; but they that mislike it, Haeresie: and yet haeresie signifies no more than private opinion; but has onely a greater tincture of choler.

• Men selectively appeal to custom or reason based on personal interest, leading to perpetual conflict over the doctrines of right and wrong.
• Mathematical truths remain undisputed only because they do not threaten any man's ambition, profit, or lust for dominion.
• Ignorance of remote causes leads people to blame immediate agents, such as tax collectors, for systemic grievances against the government.
• Anxiety regarding the future drives a curiosity for causes that eventually leads the mind to the concept of an eternal, first cause called God.
• Even those who do not investigate natural causes are driven by fear and ignorance to invent invisible powers to explain their fortunes.

For I doubt not, but if it had been a thing contrary to any mans right of dominion, or to the interest of men that have dominion, That The Three Angles Of A Triangle Should Be Equall To Two Angles Of A Square; that doctrine should have been, if not disputed, yet by the burning of all books of Geometry, suppressed.

• Religion originates from a uniquely human anxiety regarding the invisible causes of future events and personal fortune.
• The distinction between religion and superstition is often subjective, based on whether one approves of the specific way a power is feared or worshipped.
• Political leaders and lawmakers have historically cultivated these natural seeds of fear to establish laws and govern the masses more effectively.
• Unlike animals who live only for present desires, humans are plagued by a perpetual solicitude for the future, leading to a state of constant mental unrest.
• In the absence of visible causes for their circumstances, humans use their imaginations to create invisible agents or gods to hold responsible for their fate.

So that man, which looks too far before him, in the care of future time, hath his heart all the day long, gnawed on by feare of death, poverty, or other calamity; and has no repose, nor pause of his anxiety, but in sleep.

• The belief in a single, eternal God arises more logically from the intellectual pursuit of first causes than from a primitive fear of the future.
• A deep investigation into the chain of causality leads philosophers to the conclusion of a First Mover, a concept reached through reason rather than anxiety.
• Humanity's conception of invisible spirits is often derived from the misunderstanding of dreams and reflections, which are mistaken for external substances called ghosts.
• The term 'incorporeal spirit' is described as a linguistic contradiction that humans use piously to honor God's incomprehensibility rather than to define his actual nature.
• Superstition flourishes when people fail to understand true causality, leading them to attribute luck or misfortune to unrelated antecedents like specific places or names.

But the opinion that such Spirits were Incorporeall, or Immateriall, could never enter into the mind of any man by nature; because, though men may put together words of contradictory signification, as Spirit, and Incorporeall; yet they can never have the imagination of any thing answering to them.

• Religion originates from four natural seeds: the belief in ghosts, ignorance of secondary causes, devotion toward things feared, and the interpretation of casual events as omens.
• Humanity's tendency to predict the future based on past coincidences leads to the creation of prognostics and a reliance on those perceived as wiser.
• Religious systems are cultivated by two types of leaders: those who invent ceremonies for human politics and those who follow divine direction to establish a kingdom of God.
• Both forms of religious cultivation aim to make subjects more obedient and fit for civil society, peace, and charity.
• The Gentiles historically deified almost everything imaginable, from celestial bodies and animals to abstract qualities like fever, rust, and time.

For these seeds have received culture from two sorts of men; one sort have been they, that have nourished, and ordered them, according to their own invention; the other, have done it, by Gods commandement, and direction.

• Ancient legislators personified human traits and emotions, such as lust and rage, transforming them into deities like Cupid and the Furies.
• The ignorance of natural causes led people to attribute physical phenomena like storms and fertility to a vast variety of ministerial gods.
• Religious leaders used images and consecrated lands to instill fear in the populace, suggesting that gods were physically housed within statues.
• The gods of the Gentiles were endowed with human vices, including fraud, theft, and adultery, which were viewed as expressions of power rather than dishonor.
• Superstitious methods of divination, such as ambiguous oracles and astrology, were established to exploit human anxiety regarding the future.

And to the Worship, which naturally men conceived fit to bee used towards their Gods, namely Oblations, Prayers, Thanks, and the rest formerly named; the same Legislators of the Gentiles have added their Images, both in Picture, and Sculpture.

• The text categorizes various forms of divination and superstition, such as augury and palmistry, as 'juggling and confederate knavery' that exploits human fear and ignorance.
• Founders of ancient commonwealths used claims of divine inspiration or semi-divine lineage to ensure their laws were accepted without question by the populace.
• Legislators linked civil disobedience and the neglect of religious ceremonies to divine anger, effectively blaming public misfortunes on the people's own failings.
• Religious festivals and public games were utilized as tools of distraction to keep the common people entertained and less likely to mutiny against their governors.
• The Roman Empire practiced religious tolerance primarily as a strategy for civil peace, suppressing only those faiths that directly challenged the authority of the state.

And being entertained with the pomp, and pastime of Festivalls, and publike Gomes, made in honour of the Gods, needed nothing else but bread, to keep them from discontent, murmuring, and commotion against the State.

• In a kingdom established by supernatural revelation, civil laws and religious policy are inseparable, rendering the distinction between temporal and spiritual domination void.
• God maintains a dual sovereignty, ruling the entire earth through His power while governing a specific chosen nation through a distinct covenant.
• The stability of any formed religion depends entirely on the perceived wisdom, sincerity, and love of its leaders, as well as their ability to demonstrate divine revelation.
• Religious authority is undermined when leaders mandate belief in logical contradictions or when their private actions suggest they do not fear the invisible powers they preach.
• When religious leaders are suspected of seeking private gain, such as riches or dominion, they lose the reputation of love and their followers' trust.
• The ultimate collapse of a religion occurs when its governing body can no longer provide the testimony of miracles or true prophecy to validate their divine calling.

For who can believe, that he that doth ordinarily such actions, as proceed from any of these rootes, believeth there is any such Invisible Power to be feared, as he affrighteth other men withall, for lesser faults?

• Faith in supernatural claims requires the validation of miracles, without which religious belief reverts to mere local custom or law.
• The historical example of the Israelites shows that when miraculous leadership or visible divine signs cease, the people quickly relapse into idolatry.
• Injustice and corruption among religious leaders, such as the sons of Samuel taking bribes, lead the people to abandon divine governance for secular kings.
• The success of the Reformation and the fall of the Roman Church in certain regions are attributed to the perceived avarice, ignorance, and fraudulent intentions of the clergy.
• The integration of Aristotelian philosophy into theology created contradictions that undermined the intellectual authority of the Church.
• Many doctrines declared necessary for salvation are criticized as being transparently designed to increase the political and financial power of the Papacy.

So that Justice Fayling, Faith also fayled: Insomuch, as they deposed their God, from reigning over them.

• Religious institutions often lose their influence when priests prioritize private interest and fees over perceived sanctity, leaving civil law as the primary sustainer of faith.
• Nature has made human beings remarkably equal in both physical and mental faculties, as even the weakest individual possesses the capacity to kill the strongest through stealth or alliance.
• Human equality in wisdom is often obscured by vanity, as most individuals believe they possess a higher degree of prudence than the common person.
• When two people desire the same unattainable object, their equality of hope leads them to become enemies, resulting in a cycle of subjection and destruction.
• The inherent distrust or diffidence between men makes preemptive strikes and the accumulation of power a necessary strategy for personal conservation.
• Because some individuals seek conquest for pleasure rather than security, even those who prefer modest bounds must increase their power to survive.

For as to the strength of body, the weakest has strength enough to kill the strongest, either by secret machination, or by confederacy with others, that are in the same danger with himselfe.

• Human conflict arises from three primary causes: competition for gain, diffidence for safety, and glory for reputation.
• Without a common power to keep them in awe, men exist in a perpetual state of war where every individual is an enemy to every other.
• War is defined not just by actual battle, but by the constant, known disposition to fight and the lack of assurance to the contrary.
• In this state of nature, there is no industry, culture, or society because the future is uncertain and individual strength is the only security.
• The absence of a sovereign power results in a life of constant fear and the imminent danger of a violent death.

In such condition, there is no place for Industry; because the fruit thereof is uncertain... and the life of man, solitary, poore, nasty, brutish, and short.

• Human actions like locking doors and arming oneself reveal an inherent, practical distrust of others even under the protection of law.
• In a state of nature where no common power exists, concepts of justice and injustice are entirely absent because there is no law.
• Sovereign nations exist in a permanent state of war with one another, maintaining a posture of gladiators with weapons fixed on their neighbors.
• The absence of a common authority means there is no private property, only the temporary possession of what one can seize and hold.
• Peace is made possible through the human fear of death and the rational desire for a commodious life through industry.
• The Right of Nature is defined as the fundamental liberty of each individual to use their own power for self-preservation.

Kings, and persons of Soveraigne authority, because of their Independency, are in continuall jealousies, and in the state and posture of Gladiators; having their weapons pointing, and their eyes fixed on one another.

• Liberty is defined as the absence of external impediments to a person's power to act according to their reason.
• A Law of Nature is a rational precept that forbids individuals from doing anything destructive to their own lives.
• In a state of nature, every person has a right to everything, including the bodies of others, leading to a state of perpetual insecurity.
• The fundamental law of nature dictates that men should seek peace, but if peace is unattainable, they may use all advantages of war.
• To achieve peace, individuals must be willing to lay down their universal right to all things, provided others are willing to do the same.
• Laying down a right does not grant a new right to another, but merely removes an impediment so the other may exercise their own original right.

It followeth, that in such a condition, every man has a Right to every thing; even to one anothers body.

• A person becomes obliged or bound when they voluntarily renounce or transfer a right to another party.
• Injustice is defined as the voluntary undoing of a previous act, which Hobbes likens to a logical absurdity or contradiction.
• The strength of a bond or promise relies not on its own nature, but on the fear of evil consequences resulting from its rupture.
• Certain rights, such as the right to resist life-threatening force or imprisonment, are inalienable because no man can be understood to benefit from their loss.
• A contract is defined as the mutual transferring of right, whereas a covenant involves a period of trust where one party performs their part at a later time.

And the same are the BONDS, by which men are bound, and obliged: Bonds, that have their strength, not from their own Nature, (for nothing is more easily broken then a mans word,) but from Feare of some evill consequence upon the rupture.

• A free gift is distinguished from a contract by the lack of mutual exchange, often motivated by friendship, reputation, or the relief of compassion.
• The validity of a transfer of right depends heavily on the tense of the language used, where present or past tense words signify an immediate transfer.
• In free gifts, promises regarding the future are not naturally binding unless accompanied by other signs of intent, as the right remains with the owner until the act is completed.
• Contracts differ from gifts because they involve a mutual translation of right, making even future-tense promises obligatory once one party has performed their part.
• Merit is defined as the state of being owed a reward after fulfilling a condition, whether through a mutual contract or by winning a publicly propounded prize.

For the word I Will, in the former manner of speech, signifies an act of the will Present; but in the later, it signifies a promise of an act of the will to Come.

• The author distinguishes between merit earned through contract and merit earned through a free gift, aligning these with the scholastic concepts of Meritum Congrui and Meritum Condigni.
• In a state of nature, covenants based on mutual trust are void upon any reasonable suspicion because words alone cannot restrain human passions like ambition and avarice.
• A common coercive power is necessary to validate covenants, as it provides the security required for parties to perform their obligations without fear of betrayal.
• The transfer of a right inherently includes the transfer of the means necessary to enjoy that right, such as a sovereign's right to levy money for defense.
• Covenants are impossible to form with animals due to a lack of mutual understanding, or with God except through those to whom He has specifically revealed His will.

For the bonds of words are too weak to bridle mens ambition, avarice, anger, and other Passions, without the feare of some coerceive Power.

• Covenants are only valid if they concern possible future actions that fall under the deliberation of the will.
• Obligations are terminated either through the successful performance of the promise or by being granted forgiveness by the recipient.
• Contracts entered into through fear, such as paying a ransom to an enemy or a thief, are considered legally and naturally binding unless specific civil laws intervene.
• A person cannot validly covenant to forgo their right to self-defense against death, wounds, or imprisonment, as the preservation of life is the ultimate end of all rights.
• A prior covenant always takes precedence over a later one because a man cannot transfer a right he has already surrendered to another.

For man by nature chooseth the lesser evill, which is danger of death in resisting; rather than the greater, which is certain and present death in not resisting.

• Individuals are not naturally obligated to accuse themselves or loved ones because such testimony is presumed to be corrupted by the instinct for self-preservation.
• Confessions extracted through torture are deemed invalid as testimony because they are given to end physical pain rather than to reveal truth.
• Human nature relies on two primary motivators for keeping promises: the pride of generosity or the fear of consequences.
• In the absence of civil authority, the only effective way to bind a covenant is through an oath that invokes the fear of a divine power.
• An oath is only valid if it is sworn by a deity the swearer actually fears, as swearing by anything else carries no psychological weight.

For whether he deliver himselfe by true, or false Accusation, he does it by the Right of preserving his own life.

• An oath does not add any legal or moral weight to a covenant, as a lawful promise is already binding in the eyes of God.
• The third law of nature dictates that men must perform their covenants, as failing to do so renders words empty and maintains a state of war.
• Injustice is defined strictly as the non-performance of a covenant, while all other actions are considered just by default.
• Justice and private property can only exist under a coercive power or commonwealth that uses the terror of punishment to ensure compliance.
• The 'Fool' argues that breaking a covenant is rational if it serves an individual's self-preservation or benefit, challenging the inherent reason of justice.

Therefore before the names of Just, and Unjust can have place, there must be some coercive Power, to compell men equally to the performance of their Covenants, by the terrour of some punishment.

• The author examines the argument that breaking covenants or committing injustice is reasonable if it leads to a significant benefit, such as gaining a kingdom.
• He critiques the historical and legal precedents that seem to reward successful wickedness or treason with the title of virtue.
• The core of the argument is that an action is not 'reasonable' simply because it results in a benefit by chance; it must be predictable and sustainable.
• In a state of nature or war, no individual can survive without the help of confederates, and no one can expect help if they declare themselves a covenant-breaker.
• Relying on the errors or ignorance of others to remain in society is a precarious and irrational strategy for long-term preservation.
• The author concludes that breaking faith for sovereignty or heaven is fundamentally against reason because it undermines the security provided by social cooperation.

He therefore that breaketh his Covenant, and consequently declareth that he thinks he may with reason do so, cannot be received into any Society, that unite themselves for Peace and defence, but by the errour of them that receive him.

• Justice is defined as the keeping of covenants, which is a fundamental rule of reason and a law of nature necessary for the preservation of life.
• The author rejects the idea that breaking covenants can be justified by religious claims of eternal reward, as such claims are based on hearsay rather than natural knowledge.
• Covenants remain binding regardless of the perceived character or 'vices' of the other party, such as being a heretic, because such faults should have prevented the contract's formation initially.
• A distinction is made between the justice of actions, which determines guilt or innocence, and the justice of manners, which defines a person's character as righteous or unrighteous.
• True justice of manners is described as a rare 'gallantry of courage' where a person scorns to rely on fraud or broken promises for their success.

That which gives to humane Actions the relish of Justice, is a certain Noblenesse or Gallantnesse of courage, (rarely found,) by which a man scorns to be beholding for the contentment of his life, to fraud, or breach of promise.

• The author asserts that no action can be considered an injury if it is performed with the recipient's explicit consent, as consent acts as a release of any prior covenant.
• Justice is redefined from traditional arithmetic and geometric proportions into Commutative Justice, the performance of contracts, and Distributive Justice, the equitable distribution by an arbitrator.
• The value of goods in a contract is determined solely by the appetite and contentment of the contractors rather than an inherent or objective merit.
• The fourth law of nature is gratitude, requiring that those who receive a free gift ensure the giver does not regret their goodwill, thereby maintaining the possibility of mutual help.
• The fifth law of nature, complaisance, mandates that individuals strive to accommodate themselves to others to ensure social cohesion, much like stones being fitted together for a building.

For no man giveth, but with intention of Good to himselfe; because Gift is Voluntary; and of all Voluntary Acts, the Object is to every man his own Good.

• Individuals who refuse to yield superfluous goods to those in need are considered stubborn and may be cast out of society for hindering peace.
• The law of pardon requires granting peace to those who repent and provide security for their future behavior, as withholding it signals an aversion to peace.
• Retribution or revenge must only be practiced for the sake of future correction or deterrence, rather than as a vainglorious triumph over another's hurt.
• Natural law forbids expressing hatred or contempt through words or gestures, as such insults are frequent provocations to war.
• The text rejects Aristotle's claim of natural hierarchy, arguing that peace can only be maintained if all men are treated as equals by consent.

Besides, Revenge without respect to the Example, and profit to come, is a triumph, or glorying in the hurt of another, tending to no end; (for the End is alwayes somewhat to Come;) and glorying to no end, is vain-glory, and contrary to reason.

• The ninth Law of Nature requires every man to acknowledge others as his equals by nature, defining the breach of this precept as pride.
• True peace requires individuals to retain only those rights they are willing to grant to all others, such as the right to govern one's own body and access to basic necessities.
• Equity is defined as the equal distribution of rights and resources, and partiality in judgment is condemned as a direct cause of war.
• Resources that cannot be divided or shared must be allocated by lot, which includes natural lots like primogeniture or first possession.
• To resolve inevitable disputes of fact or right, the Law of Nature dictates that parties must submit to the judgment of an impartial arbitrator.

The Greeks call the violation of this law pleonexia; that is, a desire of more than their share.

• The seventeenth and eighteenth laws of nature mandate that no man can serve as an arbitrator in his own cause or in any case where he has a personal interest in the outcome.
• In disputes of fact where testimony is equal, a judge must rely on third-party witnesses to avoid a return to the state of war and force.
• The complex laws of nature are simplified into the single intelligible rule of not doing to others what you would not have done to yourself.
• While these laws always bind the conscience internally, they only require external action when there is sufficient security that others will also comply.
• Because these laws primarily require a sincere desire and constant endeavor to achieve peace, they are considered easy to observe and eternally immutable.

For he that should be modest, and tractable, and performe all he promises, in such time, and place, where no man els should do so, should but make himselfe a prey to others, and procure his own certain ruine.

• Moral philosophy is defined as the science of good and evil within human society, where good and evil are reflections of individual appetites and aversions.
• Because private appetites vary between men and even within the same individual over time, the state of nature inevitably leads to disputes and war.
• Peace is the universal good that all men agree upon, making the laws of nature—such as justice, gratitude, and mercy—the essential moral virtues.
• The laws of nature are technically theorems of reason for self-preservation, but they become true laws when viewed as the commands of God.
• A person is defined as an actor whose words or actions represent either themselves or another, derived from the Latin term for a stage mask or disguise.

So that a Person, is the same that an Actor is, both on the Stage and in common Conversation; and to Personate, is to Act, or Represent himselfe, or an other.

• An Actor is an artificial person who represents an Author, with the Author owning the words and actions performed by the Actor.
• A covenant made by an Actor within their commissioned authority binds the Author to all legal consequences as if they had acted themselves.
• If an Actor performs an act against the Law of Nature by command of the Author, the Author is the one who breaks the law, not the Actor.
• Inanimate objects, children, and idols can be personated by representatives, but they cannot be Authors themselves; their authority must derive from the state or owners.
• When authority is feigned or unproven, the Actor becomes the Author and is personally liable for the covenants they make.

For though the Action be against the Law of Nature; yet it is not his: but contrarily; to refuse to do it, is against the Law of Nature, that forbiddeth breach of Covenant.

• The true God is personated through three distinct historical representations: Moses, Jesus Christ, and the Holy Ghost acting through the Apostles.
• A multitude of men becomes a single person only through the unity of the representer, not through any inherent unity in the people themselves.
• Every individual in a multitude must grant authority to the representer, thereby becoming the author of all actions the representer takes in their name.
• In representative assemblies, the voice of the majority is considered the voice of the whole, as opposing votes cancel each other out.
• Even-numbered representative bodies risk becoming mute and incapable of action when votes are equal, though in legal cases, a tie often functions as an absolution.
• Conditional authors, known as sureties, are those who undertake to fulfill a covenant or debt only if the primary actor fails to do so.

For it is the Unity of the Representer, not the Unity of the Represented, that maketh the Person One.

• The primary motivation for establishing a commonwealth is the preservation of life and the escape from the miserable state of perpetual war.
• Natural laws like justice and equity are insufficient for security because they conflict with human passions and lack a power to enforce them.
• Covenants and agreements are functionally useless without a 'sword' or visible power to ensure compliance through the fear of punishment.
• Small groups or families cannot provide lasting security because minor shifts in numbers can easily tip the balance of power toward an invader.
• A large multitude remains ineffective if individuals are guided by private judgments, as internal disagreements reduce their collective strength to nothing.
• If humans could naturally adhere to justice without a common power, civil government would be entirely unnecessary for peace.

And Covenants, without the Sword, are but Words, and of no strength to secure a man at all.

• Temporary cooperation for a common war is insufficient for lasting peace because internal interests diverge once the external threat is removed.
• Unlike bees and ants, humans are in constant competition for honor and dignity, leading to envy, hatred, and eventual conflict.
• Human satisfaction is derived from social comparison and eminence, whereas irrational creatures find no distinction between private and common goods.
• The use of reason and speech allows humans to manipulate the perception of good and evil, causing social distraction and civil unrest.
• Human agreement is artificial and based on covenant rather than nature, requiring a common power to keep individuals in awe.
• The creation of a Commonwealth requires individuals to confer their total power upon one man or assembly to unify their diverse wills into one.

But man, whose Joy consisteth in comparing himselfe with other men, can relish nothing but what is eminent.

• A Commonwealth is created when a multitude of individuals enter a mutual covenant to surrender their right of self-government to a single person or assembly.
• This collective unity forms the 'Leviathan' or 'Mortall God,' a sovereign power that utilizes the strength of all subjects to ensure domestic peace and common defense.
• Sovereign power can be attained either through natural force and war, known as Acquisition, or through voluntary agreement, known as Institution.
• Once a Commonwealth is instituted, the subjects are legally and morally bound to the sovereign's actions as if they were their own, making the social contract irrevocable.
• Because the covenant is made among the subjects rather than between the subjects and the sovereign, the people cannot lawfully change the form of government without the sovereign's permission.

This is the Generation of that great LEVIATHAN, or rather (to speake more reverently) of that Mortall God, to which wee owe under the Immortall God, our peace and defence.

• Subjects are bound by a mutual covenant to recognize themselves as the authors of every action taken by their sovereign.
• Deposing a sovereign is considered an act of injustice because it forcibly takes away a right that the subjects themselves granted.
• Claims of a private covenant with God are dismissed as lies, as God only communicates through the mediation of the established sovereign.
• The sovereign cannot breach the social contract because the covenant is made between the subjects themselves, not between the subjects and the ruler.
• Without a sovereign to act as judge, any dispute over a breach of contract would inevitably lead to a return to the state of war and the rule of the sword.
• Covenants are described as mere words and breath, possessing no power to protect or constrain without the physical force of the public sword.

But this pretence of Covenant with God, is so evident a lye, even in the pretenders own consciences, that it is not onely an act of an unjust, but also of a vile, and unmanly disposition.

• A subject who dissents from the majority's choice of a sovereign must still submit to the collective decision or remain in a state of war where they may be justly destroyed.
• Because every subject is the ultimate author of the sovereign's actions through the initial covenant, the sovereign cannot commit injustice against any subject.
• The sovereign is immune from punishment or execution by their subjects, as punishing the sovereign would be equivalent to a subject punishing themselves for their own authorized acts.
• The sovereign maintains the exclusive right to judge which means are necessary for peace and to censor doctrines or opinions that might lead to civil discord.
• Truth in doctrine is considered inseparable from its tendency to promote peace, justifying the regulation of speech and literature for the sake of public concord.

For he that complaineth of injury from his Soveraigne, complaineth of that whereof he himselfe is Author; and therefore ought not to accuse any man but himselfe.

• The sovereign must act as the ultimate judge of doctrines and opinions to prevent the discord and civil war that arise from false teachings.
• Property rights, or the rules of 'Meum and Tuum,' are established by the sovereign to ensure subjects know what they may enjoy without interference.
• The right of judicature is essential to sovereignty, as laws are useless without a central authority to decide controversies and protect subjects from injury.
• The sovereign holds the exclusive power to declare war, make peace, and levy the necessary funds to maintain a unified military force.
• All magistrates, counselors, and officers of the state are chosen by the sovereign to ensure the effective administration of peace and defense.

For those men that are so remissely governed, that they dare take up Armes, to defend, or introduce an Opinion, are still in Warre; and their condition not Peace, but only a Cessation of Armes for feare of one another.

• The Sovereign holds the absolute power to reward subjects with riches or honor and to punish them with physical, financial, or social penalties to ensure service to the Commonwealth.
• To prevent internal conflict arising from human vanity and emulation, the Sovereign must establish laws of honor and determine the public rank and dignity of every individual.
• The essential rights of sovereignty—including control of the military, the judiciary, and the regulation of doctrine—are incommunicable and cannot be separated without destroying the state.
• The author attributes the English Civil War to the mistaken belief that sovereign power could be divided between the King, the Lords, and the House of Commons.
• If a Sovereign transfers a core power, such as the militia or the ability to raise money, the remaining powers become ineffective for maintaining peace and justice.

And so if we consider any one of the said Rights, we shall presently see, that the holding of all the rest, will produce no effect, in the conservation of Peace and Justice, the end for which all Common-wealths are Instituted.

• Sovereign power is inseparably annexed to the office of the ruler, and any grant that purports to renounce this power while retaining the title is legally void.
• The author refutes the idea that a sovereign is less powerful than the collective body of subjects, arguing that the sovereign is the only person who represents that collective unity.
• All social honors and titles are creations of the sovereign, meaning that in the presence of the ruler, the prestige of subjects vanishes like stars in the presence of the sun.
• While subjects may complain about the burdens of absolute power, these inconveniences are negligible compared to the horrors of civil war and the lawless state of nature.
• Human nature is prone to magnifying small financial grievances through passion and self-love while remaining blind to the long-term security provided by taxation.

And though they shine some more, some lesse, when they are out of his sight; yet in his presence, they shine no more than the Starres in presence of the Sun.

• Sovereignty is categorized into three distinct forms based on the nature of the representative: Monarchy (one person), Democracy (an assembly of all), and Aristocracy (an assembly of a part).
• Terms like Tyranny, Oligarchy, and Anarchy are not distinct forms of government but rather subjective labels used by those who dislike the existing sovereign power.
• Sovereign power is fundamentally indivisible; allowing a second independent representative body would create two sovereigns and inevitably lead to civil war.
• The author critiques the historical misunderstanding where a King is called Sovereign but not recognized as the people's true Representative, while elected deputies are mistakenly given that title.
• The primary difference between the three types of commonwealth lies not in the extent of their power, but in their practical convenience and ability to maintain peace.

For they that are discontented under Monarchy, call it Tyranny; and they that are displeased with Aristocracy, called it Oligarchy: so also, they which find themselves grieved under a Democracy, call it Anarchy.

• Monarchy is presented as superior because the private interest of the ruler is inherently tied to the public prosperity and strength of the subjects.
• In assemblies, individuals often prioritize private gain over public good, as the passions of men typically outweigh their reason.
• Monarchs can seek expert counsel in secret from any source, whereas assemblies are limited to their own members and subject to performative oratory.
• Assemblies suffer from inherent inconstancy, where the mere absence or presence of a few members can reverse previous legislative decisions.
• While both systems risk the enrichment of favorites, the favorites of an assembly are more numerous and possess a greater power to harm than to help.
• The text argues that the flame of passion in large groups tends to dazzle the understanding rather than enlighten it during deliberation.

For the Understanding is by the flame of the Passions, never enlightned, but dazled: Nor is there any place, or time, wherein an Assemblie can receive Counsell with secrecie, because of their owne Multitude.

• Sovereign power may legally descend to an infant, requiring the temporary administration of authority by curators or protectors acting in the child's name.
• The potential for civil unrest during a minority reign is attributed not to the monarchical system itself, but to the ambition and injustice of subjects who are poorly instructed in their duties.
• Natural law dictates that the guardianship of an infant ruler should fall to those who benefit most from the child's preservation and least from their demise to avoid treachery.
• Large sovereign assemblies are compared to infant monarchs because they often lack independent judgment and must rely on temporary 'Dictators' or protectors during times of crisis.
• While political writers often categorize governments into mixed forms, the author maintains that sovereignty remains fundamentally divided between monarchy, democracy, and aristocracy.

For seeing every man by nature seeketh his own benefit, and promotion; to put an Infant into the power of those, that can promote themselves by his destruction, or dammage, is not Tuition, but Trechery.

• Elective kings and limited monarchs are not true sovereigns but are merely ministers of the assembly or person who holds the power to appoint or limit them.
• If an elective ruler has the right to appoint a successor, the government is effectively hereditary; if not, the sovereignty resides in those who choose the next leader.
• A province governed by a foreign democracy or aristocracy is actually under a monarchy, as the subjects have no participation in the governing assembly.
• True sovereignty requires an 'Artificial Eternity' of succession to prevent the commonwealth from dissolving back into a state of civil war upon the death of a ruler.
• The right to give sovereignty implies the right to possess it, meaning the power to limit a king is the same as the power of the supreme sovereign.

For though where the people are governed by an Assembly, chosen by themselves out of their own number, the government is called a Democracy, or Aristocracy; yet when they are governed by an Assembly, not of their own choosing, ’tis a Monarchy.

• The right to dispose of succession must reside in the current sovereign to ensure the artificial eternity and stability of the Commonwealth.
• If the power to choose a successor is left to a new choice by the people, the Commonwealth dissolves into a state of war where every man must protect himself by his own sword.
• In democracies and aristocracies, succession is inherent in the assembly, but in monarchies, the right of appointment belongs solely to the judgment of the current possessor.
• Succession is determined either through express words and testaments or through tacit signs such as established customs and natural lineage.
• A monarch's heir is not necessarily their biological kin, but rather whomever the sovereign declares as the successor to their estate and power.

For the death of him that hath the Soveraign power in propriety, leaves the Multitude without any Soveraign at all; that is, without any Representative in whom they should be united, and be capable of doing any one action at all.

• Succession is determined by established custom unless a monarch explicitly declares a different will during their lifetime.
• In the absence of a will or custom, natural affection presumes a preference for the monarch's own children, specifically males due to perceived fitness for labor and danger.
• The right of succession follows the proximity of blood, as individuals are presumed to derive the most honor from the greatness of their nearest kindred.
• A monarch may lawfully dispose of the succession to a stranger or another nation, provided the governors understand the true rules of politics to avoid oppression.
• Historical examples like the Roman Empire and King James's attempt to unite England and Scotland show that integrating subjects can prevent civil strife.

For whatsoever Custome a man may by a word controule, and does not, it is a naturall signe he would have that Custome stand.

• A Commonwealth by Acquisition is established when sovereign power is seized by force, compelling subjects to submit out of fear for their lives.
• The primary difference between institutional and acquired sovereignty is whether men fear each other or fear the person who becomes their sovereign.
• Hobbes argues that covenants made under fear of death are legally binding, as all political obedience is ultimately rooted in some form of fear.
• Paternal dominion over children is derived not from the act of generation itself, but from the child's consent, whether expressed or implied.
• In a state of nature, mothers and fathers have equal claims to dominion over children, as there is no inherent difference in strength or prudence to settle the right without war.

In both cases they do it for fear: which is to be noted by them, that hold all such Covenants, as proceed from fear of death, or violence, voyd: which if it were true, no man, in any kind of Common-wealth, could be obliged to Obedience.

• In the state of nature, parental dominion over a child is determined by contract or, in the absence of one, belongs naturally to the mother because she alone can identify the father.
• A child owes obedience to whoever preserves its life, as the fundamental purpose of subjection is the preservation of one's existence.
• Sovereignty over a child follows the political status of the parents; if one parent is a subject of the other, the child belongs to the superior sovereign.
• Despotical dominion is established not by the victory in war itself, but by the covenant made by the vanquished to serve the victor in exchange for their life.
• A distinction is made between a servant and a slave: a servant has a moral obligation to obey due to granted liberty, whereas a captive in bonds has no such obligation and may justly kill their master.

For by the word Servant is not meant a Captive, which is kept in prison, or bonds; for such men, commonly called Slaves, have no obligation at all; but may break their bonds, or the prison; and kill, or carry away captive their Master, justly.

• Dominion over a vanquished enemy is not granted by the act of victory itself, but by the covenant of submission made by the defeated party to save their own life.
• A captive who is granted quarter is not immediately secure; their life is only truly guaranteed once the victor trusts them with corporal liberty.
• The rights of a master over a servant are absolute, including ownership of all the servant's goods and labor, because the servant has authorized the master's actions to avoid death.
• Despotic dominion and sovereignty by institution are functionally identical, as both rely on the absolute power of the sovereign to prevent a return to the state of war.
• A large family operates as a small monarchy, yet it only qualifies as a commonwealth if it possesses enough independent power to defend itself without immediate submission.

It is not therefore the Victory, that giveth the right of Dominion over the Vanquished, but his own Covenant.

• The text argues that biblical passages establish a precedent for absolute obedience to a sovereign, beginning with the Israelites' submission to Moses.
• The prophet Samuel describes the extensive rights of a king, including the power to seize property, labor, and tithes from his subjects.
• Sovereignty is defined as encompassing both the control of the militia and the final authority in all judicial matters.
• The legislative power is rooted in the sovereign's right to prescribe the rules of good and evil, which are manifested as laws.
• New Testament teachings from St. Paul and Jesus are cited to reinforce the duty of simple obedience to established authorities and the payment of taxes.
• The author asserts that a king's claim of necessity is sufficient title to take any subject's property without further justification.

They will not ask whether his necessity be a sufficient title; nor whether he be judge of that necessity; but acquiesce in the will of the Lord.

• The biblical story of the Fall is interpreted as an allegory for the sin of subjects judging the commands of their rightful rulers.
• Sovereign power must be absolute and unlimited to prevent the perpetual war of every man against his neighbor.
• The inconveniences of absolute rule are far less severe than the miseries caused by the absence of a central authority.
• The science of maintaining a commonwealth is based on rational rules, similar to arithmetic or geometry, rather than mere historical practice.
• Liberty is defined strictly as the absence of external impediments to motion, applicable to both animate and inanimate objects.

For though in all places of the world, men should lay the foundation of their houses on the sand, it could not thence be inferred, that so it ought to be.

• Liberty is defined strictly as the absence of external impediments to motion, distinguishing it from internal lack of power such as sickness or physical inability.
• A free man is one who is not hindered from doing what he has the strength and wit to do, regardless of whether his motivations are driven by fear.
• Liberty and necessity are consistent because voluntary actions proceed from a person's will, yet that will is the result of a chain of causes originating with God.
• Fear and liberty are compatible, as seen in a man who throws goods overboard to save a ship; he acts freely because he could have chosen to refuse.
• The creation of a Commonwealth introduces 'artificial chains' known as civil laws, which men impose upon themselves to ensure peace and self-preservation.

Liberty and Necessity are Consistent: As in the water, that hath not only Liberty, but a Necessity of descending by the Channel.

• Artificial bonds created by mutual covenants connect the sovereign's lips to the subjects' ears, held together by the danger of breaking them.
• True liberty exists only in the 'silence of the law,' where the sovereign has not prescribed specific rules for conduct.
• Subjects retain the freedom to manage private affairs such as trade, diet, and residence, provided these actions are not regulated by the state.
• The sovereign's power remains absolute and unlimited, meaning even the execution of an innocent subject is not technically an injustice against that subject.
• Because every subject is the ultimate author of the sovereign's actions, the sovereign cannot commit injury against a subject in a legal sense.

These Bonds in their own nature but weak, may neverthelesse be made to hold, by the danger, though not by the difficulty of breaking them.

• The liberty celebrated in ancient Greek and Roman philosophy refers to the independence of the commonwealth rather than the personal freedom of individual citizens.
• A sovereign state possesses the same absolute liberty in relation to other states that an individual has in a state of nature, which results in a condition of perpetual war.
• Citizens often mistake the public right of the state for their own private inheritance, leading to a false belief that they have the right to resist their own government.
• Western political thought has been corrupted by ancient authors who transcribed the practices of popular states into universal principles, encouraging sedition and civil unrest.

But withall, they live in the condition of a perpetuall war, and upon the confines of battel, with their frontiers armed, and canons planted against their neighbours round about.

• True liberty is defined by the specific rights a subject cannot be understood to have surrendered when entering into a social contract.
• Because all men are naturally free, obligations only arise from a person's own voluntary acts or the intended purpose of their submission.
• A subject retains the absolute right to disobey a sovereign's command to self-harm, self-mutilate, or abstain from life-sustaining necessities like food and medicine.
• The covenant of sovereignty does not require self-incrimination or the obligation for a man to kill himself, even if the sovereign has the right to punish his disobedience.
• Refusal to serve in war may be considered just if the individual provides a substitute, provided the refusal does not frustrate the ultimate end of the commonwealth's defense.

For by allowing him to Kill Me, I am not bound to Kill my selfe when he commands me.

• Natural fear and timidity may excuse a man from battle unless he has voluntarily enrolled as a soldier or the commonwealth's survival is at stake.
• While resisting the sovereign to protect others is unlawful, a group of men facing certain death for past crimes may justly join together to defend their lives.
• The primary liberty of the subject exists in the 'silence of the law,' allowing individuals to act at their own discretion where the sovereign has not prescribed rules.
• Subjects maintain the right to sue the sovereign in matters of debt or property if the sovereign's claim is based on a precedent law rather than raw power.
• Any action taken by the sovereign through his absolute power is considered an act of the subjects themselves, making legal challenges against such power logically impossible.

For they but defend their lives, which the guilty man may as well do, as the Innocent.

• The obligation of subjects to a sovereign lasts only as long as the sovereign possesses the power to provide protection.
• Sovereignty is described as the soul of the commonwealth, and if it departs, the members are no longer bound to follow its motion.
• A subject captured in war may rightfully transfer their allegiance to a victor if it is the only means to preserve their own life.
• If a monarch relinquishes their power or dies without an heir, subjects return to a state of absolute natural liberty.
• Banishment or the voluntary submission of a monarch to a conqueror effectively dissolves the previous contract of subjection.

The Soveraignty is the Soule of the Common-wealth; which once departed from the Body, the members doe no more receive their motion from it.

• Systems are defined as groups of people joined by a common interest or business, functioning like the muscles of a natural body.
• Regular systems possess a representative individual or assembly, while irregular systems consist merely of a concourse of people without formal representation.
• Political bodies are subordinate systems created by the sovereign power, whereas private systems are formed by subjects themselves or foreign authorities.
• The power of any representative within a subordinate body is strictly limited by the sovereign to prevent the fragmentation of the commonwealth's dominion.
• Limits on subordinate power must be clearly documented through letters patent or legal statutes to ensure they are recognized and enforceable.

By SYSTEMES; I understand any numbers of men joyned in one Interest, or one Businesse.

• A representative's authority is strictly defined by written letters and common laws, beyond which they represent only themselves.
• When a single representative commits an unwarranted act, the responsibility lies solely with that individual rather than the body politic.
• In an assembly, unauthorized decrees are the responsibility only of those members who voted in favor of the measure.
• Political bodies are exempt from corporal punishment by nature, but can face 'capital' punishment through dissolution or forfeiture of their charters.
• Debts incurred by a subordinate representative do not obligate the individual members of the body, as such power would imply absolute sovereignty.

For from corporall penalties Nature hath exempted all Bodies Politique.

• In a representative assembly, only those members who voted in favor of a contract or debt are personally liable for its repayment to external creditors.
• If a member of an assembly lends money to that same body, they can only seek repayment from the common fund and have no legal recourse against individual members.
• Protesting against the decrees of subordinate political bodies is often necessary for individuals to avoid personal liability for the group's collective debts or crimes.
• Protest is forbidden within a sovereign assembly because such an act denies the absolute authority of the sovereign and contradicts the subject's role as the author of all sovereign acts.
• Provinces are defined as territories where the sovereign is not resident and governs through commissions or assemblies with power limited by specific mandates.

He becomes both borrower and lender, and consequently cannot demand payment from any particular man, but from the common Treasure onely; which fayling he hath no remedy, nor complaint, but against himselfe.

• The text argues that people naturally prefer monarchical over popular government for distant interests, comparing it to a wealthy man trusting one servant over an assembly.
• In colonial assemblies, legal and financial liability for unlawful acts or debts rests solely with those members who voted in favor, rather than the entire body.
• Political bodies governing provinces or institutions lack the authority to seize goods or enforce laws outside their specific geographic jurisdiction.
• The sovereign serves as the essential external judge for disputes between a member and their political body, preventing the body from being a judge in its own cause.
• Incorporating merchant groups into bodies politique creates a double monopoly on buying and selling, intended primarily to increase private gain through collective power.

For though every man, where he can be present by Nature, desires to participate of government; yet where they cannot be present, they are by Nature also enclined, to commit the Government of their common Interest rather to a Monarchicall, then a Popular form of Government.

• Incorporated merchant companies function as double monopolies that manipulate prices by being the sole buyers at home and sole sellers abroad.
• These corporations disadvantage the general public by suppressing the value of domestic labor while inflating the cost of imported necessities.
• The text argues that such bodies should be governed by assemblies where every member has a voice in the accounts and employment of their own capital.
• Legal liability for debts to outsiders falls upon every individual member, as strangers cannot be expected to know the internal private laws of the corporation.
• Punishments or fines for unlawful acts by the body are only applicable to those members who specifically voted for or executed the illegal decree.

Such Corporations therefore are no other then Monopolies; though they would be very profitable for a Common-wealth, if being bound up into one body in forraigne Markets they were at liberty at home, every man to buy, and sell at what price he could.

• Deputies representing the people are strictly limited by the sovereign's mandate and are dissolved once their specific advisory purpose is fulfilled.
• Absolute representation of the people cannot exist independently of the sovereign, as two sovereign assemblies would destroy the peace of the commonwealth.
• Families are defined as regular private bodies where the father or master acts as an immediate sovereign, retaining all authority not explicitly taken by law.
• Unlawful private bodies include groups like thieves or foreign-aligned factions that organize without public authority to undermine the commonwealth.
• Leagues of subjects are generally viewed as unnecessary and suspicious, often classified as unlawful conspiracies or factions that threaten the unified state.

For if they were the absolute Representative of the people, then were it the Soveraign Assembly; and so there would be two Soveraign Assemblies, or two Soveraigns, over the same people; which cannot consist with their Peace.

• Private leagues and unions within a commonwealth are deemed unnecessary and unlawful because the sovereign power already exists to ensure justice.
• Secret consultations within a governing assembly to manipulate the rest of the body are classified as fraudulent conspiracies and factions.
• Maintaining an excessive number of private servants or armed retainers is viewed as an unlawful threat to public peace and the sovereign's protection.
• Factions based on religion or political ideology are inherently unjust as they effectively seize the sword of power from the legitimate sovereign.
• The legality of a public gathering is determined by its size and purpose; an assembly becomes a 'tumult' if its numbers are intended to overawe the authorities.
• Even if a grievance is legitimate, the act of presenting it through a massive crowd rather than a few representatives is judged as an unlawful assembly.

For sometimes, (as mens manners are,) Justice cannot be had without mony; and every man may think his own cause just, till it be heard, and judged.

• The author distinguishes between lawful assemblies, likened to muscles, and unlawful seditions, which are compared to tumors or 'evil humours' in the body politic.
• A Public Minister is defined as an individual employed by the Sovereign to represent the person of the Commonwealth in specific affairs.
• A distinction is made between a Sovereign's natural capacity as a person and their political capacity as the state; only those serving the latter are true Public Ministers.
• General Ministers, such as Regents or Governors, act as the nerves and tendons that move the limbs of the Commonwealth's body.
• Special Ministers oversee specific domestic functions like the economy, including the collection of tributes, fines, and public revenue.

Unlawfull, to Wens, Biles, and Apostemes, engendred by the unnaturall conflux of evill humours.

• Public ministers are defined as those who serve the sovereign in a political capacity, including those overseeing the military, arms, and fortifications.
• Teachers and instructors of the law are considered public ministers because they derive their authority to educate the people on justice and duty solely from the sovereign.
• Judges act as representatives of the sovereign's person, meaning their legal sentences are effectively the sovereign's own decisions.
• To ensure equity in legal disputes, the sovereign must act as an impartial arbiter or provide judges that both the complainant and defendant can agree upon.
• The English legal system's distinction between Common Pleas and Pleas of the Crown reflects the sovereign's role as either a neutral judge or a direct party in litigation.

For in their Seats of Justice they represent the person of the Soveraign; and their Sentence, is his Sentence.

• Public ministers act as the essential organs of the state, with judges and instructors serving as the voice of the sovereign power.
• Executive ministers who suppress tumults and apprehend malefactors represent the hands of the body politic, ensuring the conservation of peace.
• Foreign representatives like ambassadors are only considered public ministers if they represent the sovereign's person on public business.
• Secret agents and scouts are compared to the eyes of the body natural, performing public functions without public recognition of their status.
• Purely advisory councils are not public persons because their advice is directed only to the sovereign, who cannot be represented to himself.
• The nutrition of the commonwealth is defined by the distribution and preparation of material commodities derived from land and sea.

And those that are appointed to receive the Petitions or other informations of the People, and are as it were the publique Eare, are Publique Ministers, and represent their Soveraign in that office.

• The material nourishment of a commonwealth consists of native and foreign commodities derived from animals, vegetables, and minerals.
• Plenty is primarily dependent on human labor and industry, which can be exchanged for necessary goods even when a territory lacks natural resources.
• Property, or the distinction of 'mine' and 'thine,' only exists through the sovereign power and the establishment of civil law.
• In the absence of a commonwealth, there is no true property, only a state of perpetual war where possession is maintained by force and uncertainty.
• The initial distribution of land is an arbitrary act of the sovereign, who assigns portions based on their own judgment of equity and the common good.

Take away the Civill Law, and no man knows what is his own, and what another mans.

• Private property rights exist primarily to exclude other subjects, but they do not exclude the authority or claims of the sovereign power.
• The distribution of land is fundamentally tied to the sovereign's duty to maintain common peace and security, making all property held at the victor's or ruler's discretion.
• Subjects are prohibited from accusing their sovereign of injustice or making war against them, as they have authorized all sovereign actions by bestowing power.
• Assigning fixed public lands or a set revenue for the state is futile because the financial needs of a commonwealth are dictated by external threats rather than internal limits.
• The text argues that commonwealths cannot be 'dieted' or restricted to a specific budget, as the costs of defense and emergent occasions are unpredictable and potentially infinite.

Common-wealths can endure no Diet: For seeing their expence is not limited by their own appetite, but by externall Accidents, and the appetites of their neighbours.

• The Sovereign holds absolute authority over foreign trade to prevent private citizens from enriching enemies or importing harmful goods.
• The state must regulate all domestic contracts, including buying, selling, and lending, to ensure the validity of property transfers.
• Money functions as the 'blood' of the Commonwealth, facilitating the distribution of nourishment and resources to all its members.
• Gold and silver serve as universal measures of value that allow a Commonwealth to extend its influence and support armies abroad.
• The Sovereign's power to define the value of currency is essential for the internal 'concoction' or processing of commodities into portable wealth.

In so much as this Concoction, is as it were the Sanguification of the Common-wealth: For naturall Bloud is in like manner made of the fruits of the Earth; and circulating, nourisheth by the way, every Member of the Body of Man.

• The circulation of money within a state is compared to the biological movement of blood, where collectors act as veins and the treasury as the heart.
• Colonies are described as the 'children' of a commonwealth, formed by groups sent abroad to inhabit foreign lands through settlement or conquest.
• A colony may either become an independent commonwealth, owing only honor to its 'metropolis,' or remain a province subject to its mother country.
• The text distinguishes between command and counsel, noting that people often confuse the two because both use imperative language like 'Do this.'
• A command is defined as an instruction where the only reason for compliance is the will of the commander, typically for their own benefit.

And in this also, the Artificiall Man maintains his resemblance with the Naturall; whose Veins receiving the Bloud from the severall Parts of the Body, carry it to the Heart; where being made Vitall, the Heart by the Arteries sends it out again.

• Counsell is distinguished from Command by its intent, as it is ostensibly directed toward the benefit of the recipient rather than the speaker.
• A person cannot be legally or morally obliged to follow Counsell, because the consequences of ignoring it fall solely upon the recipient.
• Those who provide requested advice to a Sovereign cannot be justly punished for their opinions, as the requester is considered the author of the advice.
• Exhortation and Dehortation are forms of vehemently pressed advice that rely on oratory and passion rather than rigorous reasoning.
• The use of rhetorical tools like metaphors and examples in Exhortation often reveals that the speaker is seeking their own benefit rather than the recipient's.

For he that Exhorteth, doth not deduce the consequences of what he adviseth to be done, and tye himselfe therein to the rigour of true reasoning; but encourages him he Counselleth, to Action.

• The author distinguishes between command and counsel based on the source of the reason for action: commands rely on the will of the commander, while counsel relies on the benefit to the person advised.
• Exhortation and dehortation are viewed as corrupt forms of counsel when the advisor is motivated by personal interest rather than the recipient's welfare.
• In a commonwealth, counselors function as the collective memory and mental discourse of the sovereign, yet they are prone to bias unlike natural sensory experience.
• The primary requirement for an effective counselor is that their personal interests and goals must not conflict with those of the person they are advising.
• Effective counsel should be delivered in clear, manifest language that informs the recipient of the logical consequences of a proposed action.

For though the Counsell they give be never so good; yet he that gives it, is no more a good Counsellour, than he that giveth a Just Sentence for a reward, is a just Judge.

• Effective counsel must rely on firm reasoning and clear language, avoiding metaphors and emotional appeals that serve to deceive rather than inform.
• True expertise in governance requires a combination of long study in equity and law alongside practical experience in domestic and foreign affairs.
• In matters where infallible rules like geometry do not exist, the best counselor is the one with the most specific experience in that particular field.
• Counsel is more effective when heard individually rather than in an assembly to prevent the 'herd mentality' and the influence of passionate oratory.
• The passions of individuals, which are moderate in isolation, can become dangerously inflamed when gathered in a large group or assembly.

For the Passions of men, which asunder are moderate, as the heat of one brand; in Assembly are like many brands, that enflame one another.

• Consulting advisors individually allows for rigorous examination of their logic through interruptions and objections, which is impossible in a chaotic assembly.
• Large groups often prioritize performative eloquence and the applause of their peers over the actual success of the business at hand.
• Secrecy is compromised in large gatherings, forcing assemblies to delegate sensitive matters to smaller, more trusted committees.
• A leader who relies on a rigid council governed by majority rule is compared to a tennis player being pushed toward the ball in a heavy wheelbarrow.
• Great commonwealths are sustained by external threats or the influence of a single eminent man rather than by open, collective consultation.

But he that is carried up and down to his businesse in a framed Counsell... does it worst of all, and like one that is carried to the ball, though by good Players, yet in a Wheele-barrough.

• Law is fundamentally defined as a command rather than counsel, issued specifically by a person or body to whom others are already obligated to obey.
• Civil Law consists of the rules commanded by the Commonwealth to distinguish right from wrong through word, writing, or other sufficient signs of will.
• The Sovereign is the sole legislator in any Commonwealth, as they are the only representative capable of acting for the state to make or abrogate laws.
• The Sovereign is not subject to the Civil Laws because they possess the power to repeal any law that restricts them, and one cannot be bound to oneself.
• Long-standing customs only hold the authority of law through the Sovereign's silence, which implies continued consent rather than the mere passage of time.

For he is free, that can be free when he will: Nor is it possible for any person to be bound to himselfe; because he that can bind, can release; and therefore he that is bound to himselfe onely, is not bound.

• The Sovereign holds the exclusive authority to judge which customs are reasonable and which must be abolished within a Commonwealth.
• Natural laws, such as equity and justice, are not truly laws but merely qualities disposing men to peace until they are commanded by a Sovereign power.
• Civil and Natural law are not distinct types of law but different parts of the same system, where one is written and the other is unwritten.
• The fundamental purpose of all law is the restraint of natural liberty, without which peace between individuals is impossible.
• Laws of conquered provinces derive their continuing authority not from ancient custom or time, but from the current Sovereign's will to maintain them.
• All laws, whether written or unwritten, derive their binding force solely from the will of the Commonwealth's representative.

And Law was brought into the world for nothing else, but to limit the naturall liberty of particular men, in such manner, as they might not hurt, but assist one another, and joyn together against a common Enemy.

• The author argues that legislative power must reside solely in the sovereign, refuting the idea that subordinate judges or private lawyers can control the law.
• He critiques the separation of force and justice, asserting that a commonwealth cannot function if the power of the sword is held by one entity while the authority of justice is held by another.
• The text rejects the notion that law is based on the 'artificial perfection of reason' acquired by judges through study, as long study can merely confirm erroneous foundations.
• True law is defined as the reason and command of the 'Artificial Man' or the Commonwealth, which ensures consistency and prevents the contradictions inherent in private opinions.
• A command only becomes law for those who have the capacity to understand it, thereby exempting children, madmen, and 'natural fools' from legal accountability.

For it is possible long study may encrease, and confirm erroneous Sentences: and where men build on false grounds, the more they build, the greater is the ruine.

• A law is not binding if the subject has no means to take notice of it, as the will of the sovereign must be clearly communicated to be valid.
• Unwritten laws that apply to all subjects are categorized as Laws of Nature, which are discoverable through universal human reason rather than proclamation.
• The fundamental principle of natural law is summarized by the golden rule: do not do to another what you would find unreasonable to be done to yourself.
• Public ministers and judges acting without specific written instructions are bound by natural reason and equity to serve the sovereign's interests.
• Civil laws must be explicitly published through speech, writing, or other manifest signs to ensure they are recognized as the sovereign's authentic will.
• Historical methods for remembering laws included setting them to verse for singing or inscribing them upon the physical structures of the home.

For whatsoever men are to take knowledge of for Law, not upon other mens words, but every one from his own reason, must be such as is agreeable to the reason of all men.

• The identity of the Sovereign is considered self-evident because every citizen has consented to the power that protects their industry and safety.
• Natural reason dictates that no individual should weaken the power they have wittingly received protection from, making ignorance of sovereignty an invalid excuse.
• A distinction is made between the verification of a law, which is the public record or testimony, and the authority of a law, which resides solely in the Sovereign's command.
• In cases of natural law or equity, the sentence of a commissioned judge serves as the official verification of the law for that specific instance.
• Citizens have a moral and legal obligation to consult public registers and written laws before acting or complaining, as proceeding in doubt is considered unlawful.
• The true nature of law is found not in its literal text but in its 'intendment' or meaning, which can only be authentically interpreted by the Sovereign.

For it is not the Letter, but the Intendment, or Meaning; that is to say, the authentique Interpretation of the Law (which is the sense of the Legislator,) in which the nature of the Law consisteth.

• All laws require interpretation, but the power to interpret must remain with the sovereign to prevent the interpreter from usurping the role of legislator.
• The Law of Nature, while theoretically clear to rational minds, has become obscure due to human passion and self-love, necessitating authoritative judicial application.
• The validity of a law or moral philosophy does not stem from its inherent truth or the prestige of its authors, but solely from the authority of the sovereign power.
• Judicial sentences serve as authentic interpretations for specific cases, yet judges are not bound by their own past errors or the precedents of others if they find a more equitable solution.
• A judge's ruling is considered the sovereign's sentence for that specific moment, ensuring that the application of law remains flexible and subordinate to reason.

For else, by the craft of an Interpreter, the Law my be made to beare a sense, contrary to that of the Soveraign; by which means the Interpreter becomes the Legislator.

• The Law of Nature is an eternal divine law that cannot be superseded by the precedents or sentences of previous judges.
• Judges are obligated to study equity through their own natural reason rather than blindly following unreasonable historical examples.
• Punishing an innocent man who fled out of fear, despite his judicial acquittal, is a violation of natural law and a failure of justice.
• A legal presumption of guilt cannot stand once a man has been acquitted, as refusing to hear proof constitutes prejudice rather than justice.
• Past judicial decisions serve as law for the specific parties involved but do not constitute binding law for future judges in similar cases.
• Legal commentaries often complicate rather than clarify the law, leading to an infinite need for further interpretation.

For he that judged it first, judged unjustly; and no Injustice can be a pattern of Judgement to succeeding Judges.

• Judges serve as interpreters of the Sovereign's will, but their individual errors in judgment do not alter the fundamental law of the state.
• A distinction is made between the literal words of a law and its 'sentence' or intention, which is always presumed to be rooted in equity.
• When written statutes are ambiguous or silent, judges must rely on the Law of Nature and the presumed reasonable intent of the legislator to ensure justice.
• The primary qualification of a judge is not an exhaustive prior study of law, but the ability to interpret facts from witnesses and law from sovereign authority.
• In cases where following the letter of the law would result in a known injustice, a judge should recuse themselves to act as a witness rather than condemn the innocent.

For the significations of almost all words, are either in themselves, or in the metaphoricall use of them, ambiguous; and may be drawn in argument, to make many senses; but there is onely one sense of the Law.

• In trials of right, a jury of twelve common citizens serves as the judge of both the facts of the case and the legal definitions of the crime.
• While a legal authority informs the jury of the law, jurors are not penalized for deviating from those instructions unless corruption or bad conscience is proven.
• The essential qualities of a good judge include a deep understanding of natural equity, a contempt for riches, and the ability to remain emotionally detached.
• Civil laws are categorized into various types, such as imperial edicts, popular decrees, and the opinions of authorized legal experts.
• All binding laws derive their authority from the sovereign power that possesses the right to repeal them, regardless of their historical origin.

The things that make a good Judge, or good Interpreter of the Lawes, are, first A Right Understanding of that principall Law of Nature called Equity; which depending not on the reading of other mens Writings, but on the goodnesse of a mans own naturall Reason.

• Laws are categorized into Natural laws, which are eternal moral virtues like justice and equity, and Positive laws, which are created by the will of a sovereign power.
• Positive laws are further divided into Distributive laws, which define property rights and liberties, and Penal laws, which dictate punishments for transgressions.
• Penal laws are technically addressed to public ministers and officers rather than the delinquents themselves, as a criminal cannot be expected to punish himself.
• Divine Positive laws are commandments from God addressed to specific people, but they require a human authority to declare them to the community.
• The text argues that it is naturally impossible for one person to be certain of another's supernatural revelation without receiving a personal revelation from God.
• While miracles or extraordinary sanctity may suggest divine favor, they do not provide infallible evidence of a specific revelation to a third party.

For though every one ought to be informed of the Punishments ordained beforehand for their transgression; neverthelesse the Command is not addressed to the Delinquent, (who cannot be supposed will faithfully punish himselfe,) but to publique Ministers appointed to see the Penalty executed.

• Faith is a gift from God and an internal assent that cannot be commanded by any earthly power, whereas obedience is an external act subject to law.
• Subjects are bound to obey the laws of the Commonwealth as divine commands provided they do not contradict the fundamental Law of Nature.
• Scriptural examples like Abraham and Moses demonstrate that a people's obligation to follow divine revelation often stems from their prior duty to obey their sovereign leader.
• Allowing private individuals to claim their own dreams or fancies as God's commands would lead to the total dissolution of social order and consensus.
• In any matter not explicitly regulated by the Commonwealth, the Law of Nature dictates that every man should equally enjoy his natural liberty.

For if men were at liberty, to take for Gods Commandements, their own dreams, and fancies, or the dreams and fancies of private men; scarce two men would agree upon what is Gods Commandement.

• Fundamental laws are defined as those essential structures whose removal would cause the entire commonwealth to collapse like a building with a destroyed foundation.
• A critical distinction is made between Law and Right, where Law represents a binding obligation and Right represents the remaining liberty left to the individual.
• Charters are categorized not as laws but as sovereign donations or exemptions, characterized by the language of granting rather than commanding.
• Sin is defined as a transgression of law or a contempt for the legislator, which can exist in intention and purpose even before an act is committed.
• The author argues that mere imagination or natural desires are not sins, as criminalizing the basic passions of the mind would be to make a sin of being human.

For to be pleased in the fiction of that, which would please a man if it were reall, is a Passion so adhaerent to the Nature both of a man, and every other living creature, as to make it a Sinne, were to make Sinne of being a man.

• The author distinguishes between sin and crime, noting that while every crime is a sin, not every sin is a crime.
• Sin includes internal intentions and thoughts known only to God, whereas crime requires an outward act or word that can be judged by human law.
• Crime is fundamentally tied to civil law; therefore, if civil law or sovereign power ceases to exist, crime also ceases to exist.
• The Law of Nature is eternal, meaning moral failings like ingratitude or arrogance remain sins even in the absence of a formal state.
• In the absence of sovereign protection, individuals regain the right to preserve their own bodies by any means necessary.
• The root causes of crime are identified as defects of understanding, errors in reasoning, or the sudden force of passions.

To intend to steale, or kill, is a sinne, though it never appeare in Word, or Fact: for God that seeth the thoughts of man, can lay it to his charge: but till it appear by some thing done, or said, by which the intention may be Crime.

• Ignorance of the Law of Nature is never an excuse because reason dictates that one should not do to others what they would not want done to themselves.
• Ignorance of Civil Law may excuse a person in a foreign land or if the law was not sufficiently declared, provided the act does not violate natural law.
• Citizens are expected to know the Sovereign power that protects them and the existence of penalties, even if the specific severity of a punishment is unknown.
• If a penalty is explicitly defined before a crime, the state cannot justly impose a greater punishment afterward, as the defined penalty acted as the basis for the individual's choice.
• Laws cannot be applied retroactively to make an act a crime if it was not already forbidden by natural law or existing positive law at the time of the fact.

For the punishment foreknown, if not great enough to deterre men from the action, is an invitement to it.

• Powerful men often view justice as a mere word, believing that success and fortune determine whether an act is considered a crime or a virtue.
• False teachers contribute to social instability by misinterpreting the Law of Nature or promoting traditions that conflict with the duties of a subject.
• The knowledge of right and wrong is a difficult science requiring long study, yet many erroneously believe it requires only common experience and natural wit.
• Vain-glory and an over-rating of one's own worth lead the wealthy and influential to believe they should be exempt from the rigors of the law.
• Those who presume themselves wise often attempt to unsettle the laws through public discourse, framing crimes only according to their own designs.

Which being granted, no Act in it selfe can be a Crime, but must be made so (not by the Law, but) by the successe of them that commit it; and the same Fact be vertuous, or vicious, as Fortune pleaseth.

• Vain-glorious and ambitious men often deceive themselves into believing they are hidden, acting with the shortsightedness of children who hide their eyes to avoid being seen.
• Passions like lust, ambition, and covetousness are constant pressures that frequently overwhelm human reason, especially when there is a perceived hope of escaping punishment.
• Fear is identified as the primary motivation for law-abiding behavior, yet it can also drive criminal acts when the perceived danger is not immediate or physical.
• The law distinguishes between legitimate self-defense against bodily harm and illegal 'phantastical' revenge taken to avoid social contempt or future hypothetical injuries.
• Crimes committed out of a fear of spirits or superstition are treated as irrational failures of judgment rather than justifiable actions under the law.

And those that deceive upon hope of not being observed, do commonly deceive themselves, (the darknesse in which they believe they lye hidden, being nothing else but their own blindnesse;) and are no wiser than Children, that think all hid, by hiding their own eyes.

• Private visions and dreams do not excuse law-breaking, as following internal imagery over public law would dissolve the commonwealth.
• The author rejects the Stoic view that all crimes are equal, arguing that while all injustices deviate from the law, they vary in degree of 'crookedness.'
• Total excuse from a crime only occurs when the obligation to the law is removed, such as when a person lacks the means to know the law.
• Natural law is considered self-evident to any rational adult, meaning only children and madmen are exempt from its obligations due to ignorance.
• Actions taken under the immediate threat of death or for basic survival in a famine are totally excused because no law can force a man to abandon his own preservation.
• Obedience to an enemy while in captivity is not a crime, as the law's obligation ceases when its protection is no longer available to the subject.

Nature therefore compells him to the fact.

• A subject is excused from breaking a former law if the sovereign power commands an action contrary to it, as the command effectively abrogates the law for that specific instance.
• Subjects are duty-bound to obey commands even if they conflict with previously granted liberties, provided those liberties are inconsistent with the essential rights of sovereignty.
• The severity of a crime is measured by the malignity of its source, the contagion of its example, the mischief of its effect, and the context of its occurrence.
• Crimes committed through a presumption of strength or power are considered more dangerous than those committed in secret, as they represent a fundamental contempt for all laws.
• Errors in judgment are less faulty when they stem from the authority of a public teacher, as such teachings carry the weight of the commonwealth until officially corrected.

For Presumption of impunity by force, is a Root, from whence springeth, at all times, and upon all temptations, a contempt of all Lawes.

• The severity of a crime is mitigated when a sovereign fails to consistently punish past offenses, as this provides a presumption of mercy that encourages the offender.
• Premeditated crimes are considered more heinous than those arising from sudden passion because the offender has consciously weighed the law and chosen to prioritize their own appetite.
• Publicly and frequently interpreted laws increase the guilt of the offender, as breaking them demonstrates a negligent contempt for the sovereign power.
• A sovereign who tacitly approves of an action through social rewards while legally forbidding it shares the blame for the resulting transgression.
• Crimes are judged more severely based on their long-term effects, with 'fertile' crimes that set a future example of harm being worse than 'barren' ones.

The examples of Princes, to those that see them, are, and ever have been, more potent to govern their actions, than the Lawes themselves.

• Crimes committed by public figures or experts are considered more severe because their actions serve as a dangerous example or 'law' for others to follow.
• Acts of hostility against the state, such as betraying secrets or undermining sovereign authority, are categorized as the highest crimes because they damage the entire community.
• Corruption within the legal system, such as bribery or false testimony, is viewed as a fundamental threat that renders all judgments useless and invites private revenge.
• Theft from the public treasury or the counterfeiting of state seals is judged more harshly than private fraud because the resulting damage is distributed across many people.
• In crimes against private individuals, the law prioritizes physical harm and the use of terror over property damage or fraudulent consent.

For such men not onely commit Crime, but teach it for Law to all other men.

• The severity of a crime is measured by the status of the victim, the sanctity of the location, and the degree of contempt shown toward the law.
• Crimes are categorized as public or private based on whether the Commonwealth or a private individual brings the accusation.
• Punishment is defined as an evil inflicted by public authority to dispose the will of men toward obedience to the law.
• The right to punish is not a gift from subjects to the sovereign, as no man can be expected to covenant away the right to defend his own life.
• The sovereign's authority to punish is actually a remnant of the original right of nature, where every man had the right to do anything for self-preservation.
• Private acts of revenge or injuries inflicted by individuals do not qualify as punishment because they lack the sanction of public authority.

It is manifest therefore that the Right which the Common-wealth hath to Punish, is not grounded on any concession, or gift of the Subjects.

• Punishment must proceed from public authority and follow a formal legal condemnation, otherwise it is classified as an act of hostility.
• To be considered a punishment, the harm inflicted must be greater than the benefit gained from the crime, or else it is merely a price for transgression.
• The primary purpose of punishment is to dispose men toward obedience through terror and example, rather than serving as an act of revenge.
• Natural consequences of illegal acts, such as injury or illness, are considered divine punishments but do not count as human legal punishments.
• Inflicting a greater penalty than what is prescribed by law is an act of hostility because it exceeds the known terror intended to deter the subject.
• The sovereign representative of a commonwealth cannot be punished because all legal authority to punish originates from that representative.

If the harm inflicted be lesse than the benefit, or contentment that naturally followeth the crime committed, that harm is not within the definition; and is rather the Price, or Redemption, than the Punishment of a Crime.

• Subjects who deliberately deny the authority of the sovereign are no longer treated as legal subjects but as enemies of the state.
• Because enemies are outside the protection of the law, any harm inflicted upon them is considered an act of hostility rather than a regulated legal punishment.
• Human punishments are categorized into corporal, pecuniary, ignominy, imprisonment, and exile, with corporal acts further divided into capital and non-capital offenses.
• Pecuniary penalties are distinguished from the 'price of privilege,' where paying a fee might exempt one from a law unless that law is rooted in nature or religion.
• Ignominy involves the removal of honors bestowed by the commonwealth, though natural honors like wisdom and courage cannot be legally stripped away.

For in denying subjection, he denyes such Punishment as by the Law hath been ordained; and therefore suffers as an enemy of the Common-wealth.

• Imprisonment serves two distinct purposes: the safe custody of the accused before trial and the infliction of pain on the condemned after judgment.
• Any restraint or hurt imposed on a prisoner beyond what is strictly necessary for custody before a trial is considered a violation of the Law of Nature.
• Exile is not inherently a punishment but rather a command to avoid punishment, as the mere change of air does not reform the will unless accompanied by the loss of goods.
• Punishing innocent subjects is a violation of natural law because it fails to seek future good, demonstrates ingratitude for obedience, and ignores the principle of equity.
• The sovereign may lawfully harm innocent non-subjects if it benefits the commonwealth, as those outside the social covenant are treated under the original right of war.

For a Banished man, is a lawfull enemy of the Common-wealth that banished him; as being no more a Member of the same.

• Rebellion is defined as a relapse into a state of war, where offenders are treated as enemies rather than subjects, justifying punishment even unto future generations.
• Rewards are categorized as either salaries based on contract or graces given as gifts to encourage future service to the sovereign.
• Benefits granted by a sovereign out of fear are not true rewards but sacrifices made to appease potential enemies, which perversely encourages further extortion.
• The method of paying public officials significantly impacts justice, as judges paid per case are incentivized to nourish lawsuits and expand their jurisdiction.
• Punishment and reward function as the nerves and tendons that move the limbs and joints of the body politic, or the Leviathan.

For Rebellion, is but warre renewed.

• Hobbes compares the Commonwealth to the biblical Leviathan, a King of the Proud that is nonetheless mortal and subject to decay.
• The dissolution of a state through internal disorder is attributed to the failure of its makers rather than the nature of the people themselves.
• A primary cause of state failure is an imperfect institution where a sovereign accepts less power than is necessary for public defense.
• When a ruler later attempts to reclaim surrendered powers for the sake of safety, it often appears as an act of injustice, inciting rebellion.
• Foreign powers frequently exploit these internal weaknesses by supporting domestic rebels to undermine their neighbors' stability.

For want, both of the art of making fit Laws, to square their actions by, and also of humility, and patience, to suffer the rude and combersome points of their present greatnesse to be taken off, they cannot without the help of a very able Architect, be compiled, into any other than a crasie building.

• The division of power between the Senate and the People in Rome led to internal seditions and civil wars, eventually necessitating a transition to Monarchy.
• Limiting the power of a sovereign, even in small matters, forces a state to rely on dangerous shifts or deception to ensure its own survival.
• The doctrine that private individuals may judge good and evil is a poison to the state, as the civil law should be the only public measure of morality.
• Defining conscience as a private authority over the law distracts the commonwealth and leads to disobedience based on personal opinion.
• Claims of supernatural inspiration or infusion of faith undermine civil stability by encouraging men to follow their own 'prophetic' whims over the law.
• Faith and sanctity are not miracles but are achieved through natural means such as education, discipline, and the accidents of life orchestrated by God.

Otherwise in such diversity, as there is of private Consciences, which are but private opinions, the Common-wealth must needs be distracted, and no man dare to obey the Soveraign Power, farther than it shall seem good in his own eyes.

• The author argues that placing the sovereign under civil laws is a logical fallacy that creates an infinite loop of judges and leads to the collapse of the state.
• Private property rights are not absolute but are granted by the sovereign, as the state requires access to resources to provide protection and defense.
• Dividing sovereign power is viewed as inherently destructive, as divided powers inevitably conflict and lead to the dissolution of the commonwealth.
• The imitation of neighboring nations' government styles, driven by a human desire for novelty or perceived wealth, often provokes internal sedition and disorder.
• Religious and legal scholars are criticized for spreading false doctrines that suggest sanctity is incompatible with natural reason or that laws exist independently of the sovereign.

For the constitution of mans nature, is of it selfe subject to desire novelty: When therefore they are provoked to the same... like hot blouds, that having gotten the itch, tear themselves with their own nayles, till they can abide the smart no longer.

• The reading of Greek and Roman histories often incites rebellion by glorifying military exploits while ignoring the civil wars inherent in ancient popular governments.
• Classical writers mislead readers by rebranding the murder of a king as 'tyrannicide,' making regicide appear lawful and even laudable.
• Subjects under a monarchy often falsely believe that popular commonwealths offer more liberty, a sentiment the author compares to the madness of hydrophobia.
• The division of authority between civil law and 'ghostly' or religious canons creates a kingdom divided against itself, forcing subjects to serve two masters.
• The author argues that allowing democratic texts to be read without the 'antidote of solid reason' is fundamentally prejudicial to the stability of a monarchy.

Which Venime I will not doubt to compare to the biting of a mad Dogge, which is a disease the Physicians call Hydrophobia, or Fear Of Water.

• Conflict between spiritual and temporal authorities creates a fundamental instability that often leads to civil war and the dissolution of the state.
• The spiritual power exerts influence through the fear of the unknown and 'hard words,' effectively hijacking the nerves of the commonwealth from its rightful civil soul.
• Hobbes compares religious interference in governance to epilepsy, where unnatural spirits cause violent, irregular convulsions in the natural body.
• Dividing sovereign powers—such as the faculties of legislation, finance, and command—results in three independent factions rather than a unified government.
• A 'mixed monarchy' is characterized as a monstrous deformity, likened to a man with another person growing out of his side, which prevents the state from functioning as a single person.

And this is a Disease which not unfitly may be compared to the Epilepsie, or Falling-sicknesse (which the Jewes took to be one kind of possession by Spirits) in the Body Naturall.

• The sovereign's inability to access public funds due to private property claims creates a fiscal 'ague' that forces the state into desperate legal stratagems or violent seizures.
• Monopolies and the concentration of wealth in a few private hands act like a pleurisy, causing inflammation and disrupting the natural flow of resources within the body politic.
• The rise of popular, ambitious individuals can seduce the citizenry away from the law, a phenomenon compared to witchcraft that often leads to rebellion or military dictatorship.
• The excessive growth of single cities and the proliferation of independent corporations are likened to worms inhabiting the entrails of a natural man, consuming the state from within.
• The liberty of 'pretenders to political prudence' to dispute absolute power is viewed as a parasitic infection that constantly molests the fundamental laws of the commonwealth.

As also the great number of Corporations; which are as it were many lesser Common-wealths in the bowels of a greater, like wormes in the entrayles of a naturall man.

• A commonwealth is dissolved when a sovereign can no longer provide protection, leaving individuals at liberty to protect themselves by any means.
• The sovereign acts as the public soul of the state, and once this soul expires, the remaining members are no more a commonwealth than a carcass is a man.
• The primary office of the sovereign is the safety of the people, which includes not just survival but the contentments of life acquired through industry.
• Sovereigns are duty-bound to maintain their essential rights and must never transfer them, as losing the means of power inevitably results in losing the ends of peace.
• It is a sovereign's obligation to ensure the populace is educated on the grounds of sovereign rights to prevent sedition and a return to the state of war.

For the Soveraign, is the publique Soule, giving Life and Motion to the Common-wealth; which expiring, the Members are governed by it no more, than the Carcasse of a man, by his departed (though Immortal) Soule.

• Rebellion is framed not merely as a civil violation but as a breach of the Law of Nature regarding the sanctity of faith and covenants.
• The author rejects the claim that absolute sovereignty lacks rational principles, arguing that political science is an art discovered through time and industry.
• A comparison is drawn between the architecture of a lasting house and the construction of a stable commonwealth, both requiring studied principles of reason.
• The resistance to these political doctrines stems from the self-interest of the powerful and learned rather than the intellectual incapacity of the common people.
• Common citizens are described as clean paper, capable of learning rational laws of sovereignty if they are not first corrupted by the opinions of biased elites.

Potent men, digest hardly any thing that setteth up a Power to bridle their affections; and Learned men, any thing that discovereth their errours, and thereby lesseneth their Authority.

• The sovereign has a fundamental duty to instruct subjects in the principles of government to ensure both public security and personal safety from rebellion.
• Subjects must be taught not to desire foreign forms of government, as national prosperity stems from obedience and concord rather than the specific structure of the state.
• The text warns that attempting to reform a commonwealth through disobedience is as destructive as the myth of Peleus's daughters, who killed their father in a failed attempt to rejuvenate him.
• Citizens are cautioned against transferring their loyalty or admiration to popular individuals, as this undermines the sovereign's authority and mirrors the violation of divine commandments.
• Regular times must be set apart for the public to assemble and be reminded of their duties and the laws, ensuring that knowledge of the sovereign power persists across generations.

And they that go about by disobedience, to doe no more than reforme the Common-wealth, shall find they do thereby destroy it; like the foolish daughters of Peleus (in the fable;) which desiring to renew the youth of their decrepit Father, did by the Counsell of Medea, cut him in pieces, and boyle him, together with strange herbs, but made not of him a new man.

• The Sabbath serves as a historical model for public instruction, reminding subjects of the divine authority that underpins the law.
• The first table of the Commandments establishes the absolute power of the Sovereign, mirroring the pact between God and the Jews.
• Parental authority is framed as the original form of sovereignty, where children owe lifelong honor in exchange for their education and preservation.
• Justice must be taught as the preservation of property, which includes a man's life, limbs, and conjugal affections as well as his material wealth.
• True obedience requires the regulation of the heart and will, as the intention to commit injustice is as much a violation as the act itself.
• The ultimate goal of civic instruction is to reduce all social laws to the singular principle of mutual charity and the love of one's neighbor.

For to relinquish such right, was not necessary to the Institution of Soveraign Power; nor would there be any reason, why any man should desire to have children, or take the care to nourish, and instruct them, if they were afterwards to have no other benefit from them, than from other men.

• The author argues that civil instability arises when subjects prioritize private judgment over the laws of the Commonwealth.
• Most citizens receive their moral and political education from the pulpit or neighbors rather than deep meditation or study.
• The universities are identified as the primary source of political doctrine, historically favoring papal power over civil authority.
• True equity requires the sovereign to administer justice equally to both the rich and the poor, as the sovereign is subject to the Law of Nature.
• While the sovereign may pardon crimes against the state, they cannot justly pardon injuries done to private individuals without their consent.

It is no wonder, if they yet retain a relish of that subtile liquor, wherewith they were first seasoned, against the Civill Authority.

• Justice requires that the greatness of a person's rank should aggravate rather than extenuate their crimes, as they have the least need to commit injuries.
• Impunity for the powerful breeds insolence and hatred, which eventually leads to the destruction of the commonwealth by those seeking to pull down oppressors.
• Taxes are defined as the wages due to those who hold the public sword, representing the debt every citizen owes for the protection of their life and labor.
• The author argues for consumption-based taxation rather than taxing wealth, suggesting it is unfair to penalize the industrious who save while favoring the idle who spend.
• The state is responsible for the maintenance of the impotent through law, while able-bodied citizens should be forced to work or transplanted to under-inhabited colonies.

Impunity maketh Insolence; Insolence Hatred; and Hatred, an Endeavour to pull down all oppressing and contumelious greatnesse, though with the ruine of the Common-wealth.

• The author argues that no law can be unjust because laws are created by the sovereign power which every citizen has authorized.
• A good law is defined as one that is both necessary for the people and perspicuous, meaning its intent and reasoning are clearly stated.
• Laws should function like hedges, designed not to stop travelers but to keep them on the correct path and prevent them from hurting themselves.
• The text warns against the multiplication of words in legal documents, as excessive detail creates ambiguity and encourages legal evasion.
• Punishment should not be an act of revenge but a tool for correction, with the harshest penalties reserved for crimes that threaten the public peace.

For the use of Lawes, (which are but Rules Authorised) is not to bind the People from all Voluntary actions; but to direct and keep them in such a motion, as not to hurt themselves by their own impetuous desires, rashnesse, or indiscretion, as Hedges are set, not to stop Travellers, but to keep them in the way.

• The sovereign should exercise lenity toward common citizens who commit crimes out of fear or ignorance, as their lack of instruction is often the sovereign's own fault.
• Punishment should focus on the leaders and teachers of commotions rather than the seduced populace to effectively serve as a public example.
• Rewarding ambitious or popular subjects to keep them quiet is a dangerous sign of fear that encourages further malice and rebellion rather than gratitude.
• Bribing dissenters is compared to fighting the Hydra, where paying off one stubborn man causes many more to arise in hopes of receiving similar benefits.
• A monarch's duty includes selecting able counselors who have the most knowledge of peace and the least to gain from public trouble.
• Signs of a corrupt counselor include the soothing of the people's unreasonable grievances by men whose personal debts exceed their estates.

It is a contention with Ambition, like that of Hercules with the Monster Hydra, which having many heads, for every one that was vanquished, there grew up three.

• Effective political counsel requires specialized knowledge and method, much like geometry, rather than being a natural byproduct of wealth or inherited status.
• Inherited rights to counsel are historical relics of German conquests and are often inconsistent with the absolute nature of sovereign power.
• Advice is most effective when given individually and with premeditation, as group assemblies often lead to emotional contradictions and oratorical vanity.
• A sovereign must balance the necessity of a popular, charismatic military commander with the inherent risk that such popularity poses to the state's stability.
• The best domestic laws are derived from the direct complaints and information provided by the common people regarding their own local needs.

Good Counsell comes not by Lot, nor by Inheritance; and therefore there is no more reason to expect good Advice from the rich, or noble, in matter of State, than in delineating the dimensions of a fortresse.

• Usurpers who seize power through violence must often fabricate titles of legitimacy to spare their subjects the shame of submission.
• The Law of Nations is fundamentally identical to the Law of Nature, as sovereign states interact with one another in the same state of nature as individuals.
• To avoid the conflict between civil obedience and religious duty, a subject must understand the specific Laws of God to ensure they do not offend Divine Majesty.
• God's kingdom is defined not by His power over inanimate objects, but by His governance of rational subjects through words, rewards, and punishments.
• True subjection to God requires the capacity to understand His precepts, thereby excluding atheists, irrational creatures, and inanimate bodies from His kingdom.

By denying the Existence, or Providence of God, men may shake off their Ease, but not their Yoke.

• God's subjects are defined as those who acknowledge his providence and laws, while those who deny his word are categorized as enemies.
• Divine laws are communicated through a triple word: natural reason, supernatural revelation, and the prophetic voice of chosen men.
• The kingdom of God is divided into a natural kingdom governed by reason and a prophetic kingdom governed by positive laws given to a specific nation.
• God's right to reign and punish is derived not from his role as a creator or from human gratitude, but solely from his irresistible power.
• The suffering of the virtuous and the prosperity of the wicked is explained by the fact that the right of affliction is rooted in divine power rather than human sin.

To those therefore whose Power is irresistible, the dominion of all men adhaereth naturally by their excellence of Power; and consequently it is from that Power, that the Kingdome over men, and the Right of afflicting men at his pleasure, belongeth Naturally to God Almighty; not as Creator, and Gracious; but as Omnipotent.

• The text argues that God's right to afflict individuals is derived from His omnipotent power rather than as a direct punishment for human sin.
• Using the examples of Job and the man born blind, the author illustrates that suffering can exist alongside innocence to manifest God's works.
• Natural laws regarding human conduct, such as equity and mercy, are distinguished from the natural duties of honor and worship owed to the Divine.
• Honor is defined as an internal opinion of power and goodness, while worship is the external manifestation of that honor through words and actions.
• The concept of 'Cultus' is explored as a form of labor intended to win favor, comparing the cultivation of the earth to the courting of a higher will.
• External worship is categorized into praise, magnifying, and blessing, which correspond to the passions of love, hope, and fear.

This question in the case of Job, is decided by God himselfe, not by arguments derived from Job’s Sinne, but his own Power.

• Worship is categorized into natural signs of honor, such as obedience and gratitude, and arbitrary signs that depend on local custom and institution.
• Arbitrary worship is further divided into commanded worship, where the value lies in obedience, and free worship, which depends entirely on the perception of the spectator.
• Public worship is the collective action of a commonwealth, while private worship is subject to restraint by law or public opinion when performed in view of others.
• The primary end of human worship is the acquisition or recognition of power, as witnessing honor leads others to be more ready to obey.
• Natural reason dictates that God must be attributed with existence, infinity, and causality, while denying him care for mankind is seen as a rejection of his honor.

For a signe is not a signe to him that giveth it, but to him to whom it is made; that is, to the spectator.

• The text argues that God must be understood as a single, infinite being, as multiple infinities are logically impossible.
• Human passions like anger, repentance, or desire cannot be literally attributed to God because they imply a lack of power or a dependency on external causes.
• Language used to describe God, such as 'Good' or 'Just,' is not a declaration of his actual nature but a symbolic expression of human admiration and humility.
• Rational worship consists of actions like prayer and sacrifice which serve as outward signs of an internal intention to honor God's power.
• Disputing the specific nature of God through natural reason is considered a form of dishonor, as it prioritizes human wit over pious intention.

For in the Attributes which we give to God, we are not to consider the signification of Philosophicall Truth; but the signification of Pious Intention, to do him the greatest Honour we are able.

• Natural reason dictates that divine worship should involve the best possible expressions, including well-composed language, music, and submissive gestures.
• Public worship is defined by uniformity, requiring the Commonwealth to act as a single person by mandating specific religious practices for all citizens.
• The sovereign power holds the authority to determine which attributes and actions signify honor toward God within the civil laws of the state.
• While some actions are naturally honorable or shameful, indifferent actions become sacred duties once ordained by the Commonwealth's laws.
• Obedience to the laws of nature and the sovereign is characterized as the highest form of worship, surpassing physical sacrifices.
• Every human action initiates a chain of consequences so long that no human foresight can perceive the ultimate end or the punishments linked within it.

There is no action of man in this life, that is not the beginning of so long a chayn of Consequences, as no humane Providence, is high enough, to give a man a prospect to the end.

• The author argues that every action carries inherent natural punishments, such as disease for intemperance and rebellion for negligent governance.
• He reflects on the difficulty of implementing his political philosophy, comparing his work to Plato's Republic and the requirement for rulers to be philosophers.
• The text asserts that the science of natural justice is the only essential knowledge for a sovereign, dismissing the need for advanced mathematical training.
• The author transitions from discussing natural reason to the principles of a Christian Commonwealth, which incorporates supernatural revelation.
• He maintains that while divine word may be above human reason, it is never contrary to it, and reason must not be abandoned for blind faith.

For they are the talents which he hath put into our hands to negotiate, till the coming again of our blessed Saviour; and therefore not to be folded up in the Napkin of an Implicate Faith.

• Religious mysteries should be accepted without logical dissection, much like medicinal pills that work when swallowed whole but cause sickness when chewed.
• Captivating the understanding does not mean changing one's internal beliefs, which are involuntary, but rather submitting the will to external obedience and silence.
• Claims of immediate divine revelation from others are impossible to verify, as a dream of God speaking is indistinguishable from a natural dream born of self-conceit.
• A sovereign can command outward conformity and the cessation of contradiction, but they cannot force the internal mind to think against its own reason.
• True prophetic authority requires both the performance of miracles and the teaching of doctrine that conforms to established law.

For it is with the mysteries of our Religion, as with wholsome pills for the sick, which swallowed whole, have the vertue to cure; but chewed, are for the most part cast up again without effect.

• A true prophet must be validated by both the teaching of established religion and the performance of an immediate miracle.
• Since miracles have ceased in the modern era, private claims of supernatural inspiration or revelation are no longer valid signs of authority.
• The Holy Scriptures now serve as the sole substitute for prophecy, providing all necessary rules for duty through careful human reasoning.
• The determination of which books constitute the biblical canon is a matter of civil law, established by the authority of the sovereign.
• Subjects must rely on natural reason and the laws of their commonwealth to interpret what God has commanded in the absence of direct revelation.

Seeing therefore Miracles now cease, we have no sign left, whereby to acknowledge the pretended Revelations, or Inspirations of any private man.

• The text examines the historical classification of canonical and apocryphal books, noting discrepancies in how figures like St. Jerome and Josephus categorized the Old Testament.
• While the New Testament is universally accepted by Christian sects, the original authorship of many biblical books lacks external historical testimony or logical proof of fact.
• The author argues that the titles of books, such as the 'Books of Moses,' often denote the subject matter rather than the identity of the writer.
• Internal textual evidence, such as references to Moses' burial site and the state of the Canaanites, suggests that the Pentateuch was written after the events it describes.
• The citation of 'The Book of the Warres of the Lord' within the text of Numbers indicates that the biblical writers relied on even more ancient, lost sources.

For it were a strange interpretation, to say Moses spake of his own sepulcher (though by Prophecy), that it was not found to that day, wherein he was yet living.

• The author argues that while Moses wrote specific laws and volumes, the Pentateuch as a whole was compiled long after his death.
• Textual evidence such as the phrase 'unto this day' suggests that the Book of Joshua was written at a time beyond the memory of the events described.
• The Books of Judges and Ruth contain references to the 'captivity of the land,' indicating they were finalized after the Babylonian exile.
• Historical continuity in the Books of Kings and Chronicles proves they were written post-captivity, as the narrative extends to that period.
• The presence of established statutes and place names attributed to past figures implies a significant chronological gap between the events and their recording.

For 'unto this day', is a phrase that signifieth a time past, beyond the memory of man.

• The author argues that many biblical books, including Esdras, Nehemiah, and the Psalms, were compiled or finalized only after the Jews returned from the Babylonian captivity.
• The Book of Job is characterized not as a literal history, but as a philosophical treatise in verse concerning the prosperity of the wicked and the suffering of the good.
• The Proverbs and the Prophetic books are viewed as collections or narrations compiled by later editors rather than being written entirely by the titular figures themselves.
• The Book of Jonah is identified as a history of the prophet's disobedience rather than a register of his prophecy, suggesting he was the subject rather than the author.
• The final form of the Old Testament canon is determined to have been established as a unified body of law and doctrine long after the events described within the texts occurred.

But Verse is no usuall stile of such, as either are themselves in great pain, as Job; or of such as come to comfort them, as his friends; but in Philosophy, especially morall Philosophy, in ancient time frequent.

• The Old Testament was reportedly restored by Esdras through divine inspiration after the original laws were lost to fire.
• New Testament writings are as ancient as the Apostles themselves, though their formal collection by the Church occurred much later.
• The Council of Laodicea in 364 AD represents the first definitive historical recommendation of the Bible as a complete collection for Christian churches.
• Despite the potential for ecclesiastical fraud to increase church power, the author argues the scriptures were likely not falsified because they do not sufficiently support clerical sovereignty over civil princes.
• The Apocrypha may contain authentic doctrine but was excluded from the canon primarily because the texts were not found in the original Hebrew.

Thy law is burnt; therefore no man knoweth the things which thou has done, or the works that are to begin.

• The text asserts that the canonical status of a book is determined by the authority of the Church rather than the identity of the individual writer.
• The entire Bible is unified by a single purpose: establishing the rights of the Kingdom of God through the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost.
• Divine representation is divided into three historical periods: Moses and the High Priests, the life of Christ, and the era of the Apostles and their successors.
• The fundamental question regarding Scripture is not whether God is the author, but by what authority these writings are made into binding Law.
• While the Scriptures align with the Laws of Nature through reason, their specific authority as Law requires a distinct jurisdictional foundation.

But it is not the Writer, but the authority of the Church, that maketh a Book Canonicall.

• Divine laws only hold the force of law for individuals to whom God has directly revealed them or through the mediation of a sovereign authority.
• Private revelations cannot be binding on others because individuals often mistake their own dreams, madness, or ambitions for divine inspiration.
• The Church and the Commonwealth are essentially the same entity when composed of Christian men united under a single sovereign person.
• An universal Church lacks authority unless it constitutes a single global commonwealth, which would imply all monarchs are subject to one universal sovereign.
• The power to establish scripture as law inherently includes the exclusive right to approve or disapprove of its interpretation.

For if every man should be obliged, to take for Gods Law, what particular men, on pretence of private Inspiration, or Revelation, should obtrude upon him, it were impossible that any Divine Law should be acknowledged.

• The author seeks to clarify ambiguous biblical terms to prevent obscure or disputable theological inferences.
• A 'Body' is defined as a real part of the universe that occupies space and exists independently of the human imagination.
• The terms 'Substance' and 'Body' are argued to be synonymous, rendering the phrase 'Incorporeal Substance' a logical contradiction.
• Common language often mistakes invisible but physical substances, like air or wind, for 'Spirits' due to a lack of tactile resistance.
• Phantasms such as dreams or reflections are described as 'idols of the brain' or internal tumults rather than external realities.
• The word 'Spirit' is frequently used metaphorically to describe mental dispositions, such as a 'Spirit of Contradiction' or a 'Froward Spirit.'

Substance Incorporeall are words, which when they are joined together, destroy one another, as if a man should say, an Incorporeall Body.

• The author argues that the nature of God is incomprehensible to human understanding, meaning we can only know that He exists rather than what He is.
• Scriptural references to the Spirit of God are often metaphors for physical phenomena, such as a wind or breath used to move the waters.
• The term Spirit is frequently used to describe extraordinary gifts of the understanding, such as the wisdom of Joseph or the skill of craftsmen.
• Extraordinary human emotions and virtues, including zeal, courage, and even fury in defense of God's people, are categorized as the Spirit of God.
• Religious attributes given to God are intended as expressions of honor and submission rather than accurate descriptions of His actual nature.

For the nature of God is incomprehensible; that is to say, we understand nothing of What He Is, but only That He Is.

• The author argues that biblical references to the Spirit of God often signify a sudden zeal or devotion rather than an indwelling incorporeal ghost.
• Prophetic gifts and predictions are characterized as supernatural dreams or visions rather than internal spirits speaking through the individual.
• The 'breath of life' and 'spirit in the nostrils' are interpreted as metaphors for vital strength and the simple state of being alive.
• The text suggests that having the Spirit of Christ or the Holy Ghost refers to a submission to doctrine or a zeal for divine work.
• The author criticizes the translation of 'Spirit' as 'Ghost,' labeling the latter an imaginary inhabitant of the human brain with no real substance.

How we came to translate Spirits, by the word Ghosts, which signifieth nothing, neither in heaven, nor earth, but the Imaginary inhabitants of mans brain, I examine not.

• The author argues that biblical spirits and angels must be understood as corporeal substances rather than incorporeal phantasms, as they occupy space and move between locations.
• Biblical accounts of Christ walking on water are interpreted as physical manifestations because they were witnessed by multiple people simultaneously, unlike private delusions of the brain.
• The term 'incorporeal' is often misused to describe 'subtle bodies'—substances like air or wind that are real and dimensional but invisible to the naked eye.
• Angels are defined functionally as messengers of God's extraordinary presence, whether they manifest as physical bodies or as divinely inspired visions within the fancy.
• The text suggests that common beliefs about demons and spirits often arose from Jews and Gentiles mistakenly treating internal mental imagery as independent, external substances.

Therefore are not Ghosts Incorporeall, that is to say, Ghosts that are in No Place; that is to say, that are No Where; that is to say, that seeming to be Somewhat, are Nothing.

• The author argues that angels in the Old Testament are not permanent spiritual beings but rather supernatural images or voices raised in the human fancy.
• Scriptural evidence suggests that the term 'Angel' is often used interchangeably with God himself, acting as a temporary manifestation of His presence.
• Angels can take various forms, such as voices, dreams, or physical phenomena like the Pillar of Cloud and Fire, rather than just the human-like figures often depicted.
• The text critiques common artistic representations of angels with wings as 'false instruction' that misleads the public about their true functional nature.
• The primary role of an angel is defined by its use as a messenger or sign of a supernatural operation rather than its specific shape or permanent existence.

For it is not the shape; but their use, that makes them Angels.

• The author argues that the term 'Angel' often functions as a title for a messenger or a sign of God's presence rather than describing a specific species of being.
• Scriptural evidence suggests that if angels are subject to punishment by everlasting fire, they must possess some form of materiality, as incorporeal substances cannot suffer physical pain.
• The names of specific angels like Gabriel are interpreted not as distinct persons but as supernatural phantasms or visions created by God to communicate with mortals.
• The author concludes that the concept of an 'incorporeal substance' is a logical contradiction, implying that if angels exist as substances, they must be corporeal.
• Despite a personal inclination to view angels as mere apparitions of the fancy, the author admits that New Testament passages compel a belief in their permanent existence.

For God needeth not, to distinguish his Celestiall servants by names, which are usefull onely to the short memories of Mortalls.

• The author argues that spirits cannot be incorporeal because to be 'nowhere' is to be nothing, suggesting that biblical terms must be understood through physical or metaphorical lenses.
• The term 'inspiration' is identified as a metaphor for God's influence on the mind rather than a literal blowing of air or substance into a human body.
• Divine 'fullness' or the 'pouring out' of the spirit refers to the accumulation of virtues and gifts, such as sanctity or wisdom, rather than the physical infusion of God's substance.
• The text critiques the literal interpretation of spirits entering bodies, comparing the idea of pouring graces into men to filling barrels with liquid.
• Scriptural events like the wind at Pentecost are interpreted as external signs of internal transformation rather than the physical presence of the Deity itself.

For those graces are Vertues, not Bodies to be carryed hither and thither, and to be powred into men, as into barrels.

• The author argues that the Kingdom of God is commonly misunderstood as a metaphorical state of grace or eternal felicity rather than a literal civil sovereignty.
• A proper Kingdom of God is defined as a monarchy established by the consent and votes of a specific people through a formal covenant.
• The historical Kingdom of God began with Adam and was later formalized through a contract with Abraham, involving specific obligations to positive law.
• The covenant at Mount Sinai renewed this relationship, explicitly transforming the Israelites into a sacerdotal kingdom and a peculiar people under God's direct rule.
• The text emphasizes that religious loyalty is equivalent to political allegiance, with circumcision and baptism serving as tokens of this sworn contract.

In which manner he Reigned over Adam, and gave him commandement to abstaine from the tree of cognizance of Good and Evill; which when he obeyed not, but tasting thereof, took upon him to be as God, judging between Good and Evill, not by his Creators commandement, but by his own sense, his punishment was a privation of the estate of Eternall life.

• The author argues that the 'Kingdom of God' refers to a literal commonwealth where God acts as the civil sovereign through a specific covenant.
• The term 'peculiar people' is interpreted as an extraordinary status where a nation belongs to God by their own consent rather than just His universal power.
• The text asserts that the High Priest served as God's sole viceroy or lieutenant, being the only one permitted to inquire of God's will directly.
• Biblical evidence from the book of Samuel is used to show that the Israelites' demand for a human king was a formal rejection of God's direct political reign.
• Prophetic writings are cited to suggest that the Kingdom of God involves a future restitution of this specific, localized political governance in Zion.

Hearken unto the voice of the People, for they have not rejected thee, but they have rejected me, that I should not reign over them.

• The author argues that the Kingdom of God is a literal, earthly sovereignty centered in Jerusalem rather than a metaphorical or purely spiritual realm.
• Scriptural evidence from both Testaments suggests that Christ's kingship is a restoration of the civil authority God held over Israel before the election of Saul.
• The phrase 'Thy Kingdom come' implies that God's specific covenanted reign is currently interrupted and awaits a future physical restoration on Earth.
• The distinction between the Kingdom of Grace and the Kingdom of Glory defines the current period as one of preparation for Christ's future actual governance.
• The text suggests that interpreting the Kingdom as purely spiritual has been used to obscure the rights of Christian sovereigns over ecclesiastical government.

The Kingdome therefore of God, is a reall, not a metaphoricall Kingdome; and so taken, not onely in the Old Testament, but the New.

• The author argues that the term 'Holy' in God's kingdom is functionally equivalent to the term 'Public' or 'the King's' in earthly sovereign states.
• Holiness is defined fundamentally as a matter of propriety or ownership, where something is set apart from common use specifically for God by covenant or consent.
• A distinction is made between things 'Sanctified' by God's own appropriation and things 'Sacred' through the dedication and consecration of men.
• The text establishes a hierarchy of holiness, suggesting that degrees of sanctity exist based on how closely a person or object is set apart for special service.
• Sacraments are defined as visible signs of this separation from common use, serving as markers for admission into or commemoration of God's kingdom.

For by Holy, is alwaies understood, either God himselfe, or that which is Gods in propriety; as by Publique is alwaies meant, either the Person of the Common-wealth it self, or something that is so the Common-wealths, as no private person can claim any propriety therein.

• Sacraments are categorized into those of admission, performed once, and those of commemoration, which must be repeated to maintain allegiance.
• The author identifies only two principal sacraments for each covenant: Circumcision and Passover for the Old Testament, and Baptism and the Lord's Supper for the New.
• The 'Word of God' is defined not as a single grammatical unit or noun, but as a complete discourse or 'Sermo' that conveys intent such as commands or promises.
• Scriptural references to the 'Word' often signify the subject matter—specifically the doctrine of religion or divinity—rather than a direct quotation of God's voice.
• The phrase 'Word of Life' or 'Word of the Kingdom' is interpreted as the systematic teaching of Christian doctrine and the governance of Christ.

When there is mention of the Word of God, or of Man, it doth not signifie a part of Speech, such as Grammarians call a Nown, or a Verb, or any simple voice, without a contexture with other words to make it significative; but a perfect Speech or Discourse.

• The author distinguishes between the 'Word of God' as literal speech and as the broader evangelical doctrine of Christian religion.
• Scriptural references to the Word 'growing' or 'multiplying' are interpreted as the spread of doctrine rather than the physical multiplication of a voice.
• The term is often used metaphorically to represent God's power, wisdom, and eternal decrees in the creation and upholding of the universe.
• In many biblical contexts, 'the Word' refers to the effect or the thing promised rather than the linguistic utterance itself.
• The author argues that calling Christ 'the Word' signifies he is the fulfillment of God's promise rather than a grammatical 'Verbe' or part of speech.

They might as well term him the Nown of God: for as by Nown, so also by Verbe, men understand nothing but a part of speech, a voice, a sound, that neither affirms, nor denies, nor commands, nor promiseth, nor is any substance corporeall, or spirituall;

• The author argues that Christ is called the 'Word' not as a literal incarnation of speech, but as the fulfillment of God's historical promises and the procurer of eternal life.
• The 'Word of God' can also signify the dictates of reason and equity, even when spoken by an idolater like Pharaoh Necho, provided the message aligns with natural law.
• The term 'Prophet' is defined primarily as a 'Prolocutor' or spokesman who mediates communication between God and humanity, rather than just a predictor of the future.
• The role of a prophet extends to those who lead public prayers or teach in congregations, as seen in the biblical relationship between Moses and Aaron.
• Scriptural authority is prioritized over the Apocrypha, specifically regarding the historical account of King Josiah and the source of the divine warnings he received.

The Word of God, is then also to be taken for the Dictates of reason, and equity, when the same is said in the Scriptures to bee written in mans heart.

• The term prophecy often refers to the public act of praising God through psalms, hymns, and holy songs rather than foretelling the future.
• Heathen poets were historically called prophets because they composed verses in honor of their gods, a linguistic convention acknowledged by St. Paul.
• True predictive prophecy is defined as an extraordinary and temporary employment from God rather than a constant vocation or a learned art.
• Imposters and those with 'familiar spirits' often gain unmerited reputations for prophecy through lucky guesses that the public selectively remembers.
• Incoherent or 'mad' speech was sometimes categorized as prophecy by the Gentiles, who derived meaning from the loose words of intoxicated oracles.

They gain in the opinion of the common sort of men, a greater reputation of Prophecy, by one casuall event that may bee but wrested to their purpose, than can be lost again by never so many failings.

• Attributing physical organs like eyes or ears to God is an act of honor rather than a literal description of his nature.
• Ascribing the full range of human biological functions to the divine would be considered a form of contumely or insult.
• God communicates his will through various signs and methods, primarily dreams and visions, as documented in Holy Scripture.
• While most prophets received messages through dreams, Moses was granted a unique status, communicating with God as a man speaks to a friend.
• Even the most direct instances of God speaking to Moses are interpreted as being mediated through the presence of angels or visions.

But if it were to be taken in the strict, and proper sense, one might argue from his making of all parts of mans body, that he had also the same use of them which we have; which would be many of them so uncomely, as it would be the greatest contumely in the world to ascribe them to him.

• The text argues that for most extraordinary prophets in the Old Testament, the 'Word of God' was delivered exclusively through supernatural dreams and visions.
• The phrase 'speaking by the Spirit' is interpreted not as a distinct method of communication, but as a synonym for these visionary and imaginative experiences.
• A distinction is drawn between temporary prophets and those of 'perpetual calling,' such as Moses, High Priests, and later, the pious Kings of Israel.
• The author highlights a shift in power where Kings eventually held supreme prophetic authority, commanding High Priests and even removing them from office.
• While ordinary prophecy is explained through dreams, the specific manner in which God spoke to sovereign leaders like Moses remains a scriptural mystery.

And King Solomon took the Priesthood from Abiathar, and gave it to Zadoc.

• The author argues that equating the Holy Spirit in Moses with the literal Deity would improperly elevate him to the same status as Christ.
• Divine communication to sovereign prophets of the Old Testament remains ultimately unintelligible and distinct from ordinary human experience.
• Subordinate prophets are described as being moved by the Spirit through natural inclinations toward piety and virtue rather than supernatural revelation.
• The 'Spirit' given to the seventy elders in the wilderness is interpreted as a shared mind and disposition to obey and assist Moses in governance.
• Prophecy in a subordinate sense is defined as speaking according to God's will as declared by the supreme prophet of the time.

For if it were meant they had the substantial Spirit of God; that is, the Divine nature, inspired into them, then they had it in no lesse manner than Christ himself, in whom onely the Spirit of God dwelt bodily.

• The Spirit of God is defined here as an inclination toward divine service and the granting of administrative graces rather than purely supernatural revelation.
• Biblical history demonstrates that God declared his will through diverse methods including lots, dreams, visions, and the mediation of second causes.
• The text argues that because the desire to govern is a natural human ambition, any individual claiming prophetic authority should be viewed with suspicion of imposture.
• Reason and judgment are essential for every individual to distinguish between natural occurrences and genuine supernatural gifts or visions.
• The prevalence of false prophets throughout scripture necessitates that individuals examine all religious claims at their own peril unless authorized by a civil sovereign.

For he that pretends to teach men the way of so great felicity, pretends to govern them; that is to say, to rule, and reign over them; which is a thing, that all men naturally desire, and is therefore worthy to be suspected of Ambition and Imposture.

• The text highlights a historical prevalence of false prophets who speak visions from their own hearts rather than from God.
• During the Old Testament, subjects were required to use natural reason to test prophecy against the established doctrines of Moses.
• In the New Testament era, the primary criterion for a true prophet is the confession that Jesus is the Christ come in the flesh.
• The author argues that individuals must recognize the sovereign ruler as God's vicegerent on earth to determine which doctrines are authorized.
• Prophetic authority is not necessarily tied to personal holiness, as evidenced by God speaking through figures like Balaam or the Witch of Endor.

Every man then was, and now is bound to make use of his Naturall Reason, to apply to all Prophecy those Rules which God hath given us, to discern the true from the false.

• Subjects must defer to their sovereign's judgment regarding the validity of prophets to prevent the chaos of private interpretation.
• Rejecting a Christian sovereign as God's representative leads individuals to follow their own delusions or be manipulated by seditious leaders.
• A miracle is defined as an admirable work of God that serves as a sign of His commandments when natural reasoning is insufficient.
• The essence of a miracle lies in its rarity and the absence of a known natural cause, rather than just the complexity of the event.
• Familiarity diminishes the miraculous nature of an event; for example, a rainbow was a miracle when first seen but is now considered a natural occurrence.
• Human artifice and technology are not considered miracles because their underlying methods and human origins are understood.

For when Christian men, take not their Christian Soveraign, for Gods Prophet; they must either take their owne Dreams, for the prophecy they mean to bee governed by, and the tumour of their own hearts for the Spirit of God.

• A miracle is defined by the observer's level of knowledge, meaning what appears supernatural to the ignorant may be understood as natural by the wise.
• True miracles are distinguished from ordinary natural wonders by their specific purpose: to establish the credibility of God's messengers and prophets.
• Even monumental events like the creation of the world or the Great Flood are not strictly termed miracles because they were not performed to validate a human minister.
• The primary function of a miracle is to prove that a prophet acts by divine authority rather than personal interest or design.
• Scriptural miracles, such as those performed by Moses in Egypt, were intended specifically to foster belief among the elect rather than to convert all people universally.

For how admirable soever any work be, the Admiration consisteth not in that it could be done, because men naturally beleeve the Almighty can doe all things, but because he does it at the Prayer, or Word of a man.

• Miracles are defined as immediate works of God performed outside the laws of nature to manifest the mission of a divine minister to the elect.
• The inability of Christ to perform miracles in certain regions is attributed to divine election rather than a lack of personal power or the presence of unbelief.
• True miracles can only be performed by God, meaning that angels, demons, and created spirits lack the power to produce supernatural effects.
• The author argues that the 'miracles' of Egyptian magicians were likely acts of imposture and delusion that exploited human ignorance rather than genuine supernatural feats.
• A distinction is made between the immediate hand of God and the use of natural science or incantations, which are dismissed as insufficient for true miracles.

If therefore Enchantment be not, as many think it, a working of strange effects by spells, and words; but Imposture, and delusion, wrought by ordinary means; and so far from supernaturall, as the Impostors need not the study so much as of naturall causes, but the ordinary ignorance, stupidity, and superstition of mankind, to doe them.

• Miracles performed by enchantment are not transformations of physical objects, but rather psychological manipulations of the spectator's perception.
• Human ignorance of natural causes and the science of the stars makes the general population highly susceptible to being abused by easy tricks.
• Individual performers use techniques like ventriloquism or cold reading to simulate divine voices or supernatural knowledge.
• Impostures involving confederacy and conspiracy are even more effective, as multiple witnesses can make the impossible seem believable.
• To guard against false prophets, one must verify if their teachings align with established religious authority and if their predictions actually come to pass.

For two men conspiring, one to seem lame, the other to cure him with a charme, will deceive many: but many conspiring, one to seem lame, another so to cure him, and all the rest to bear witnesse; will deceive many more.

• In cases of alleged miracles, individuals should defer their private judgment to the 'Public Reason' represented by the sovereign or the head of the Church.
• The author argues that modern reports of supernatural events are often more a question of the reporter's honesty than the reality of the miracle itself.
• While an individual maintains the internal freedom of thought to believe or disbelieve in private, they must outwardly submit to the state's interpretation for the sake of peace.
• A commonwealth cannot endure if any authority other than the sovereign claims the power to grant rewards greater than life or punishments greater than death.
• The text begins an inquiry into the scriptural definitions of eternal life and hell to ensure that religious doctrine does not undermine civil obedience.

A private man has alwaies the liberty, (because thought is free,) to beleeve, or not beleeve in his heart, those acts that have been given out for Miracles.

• The author argues that Adam was originally intended to live eternally on Earth, and that mortality was the specific penalty for his first sin.
• Jesus Christ is presented as the restorer of this lost state, recovering the same eternal life for believers that Adam forfeited.
• Scriptural evidence, including the description of the New Jerusalem descending from heaven, suggests that the kingdom of God will be a terrestrial rather than a celestial realm.
• The restoration of eternal life is framed as a political government on Earth, mirroring the kingdom of God established under Moses.
• The text posits that if humans were immortal and continued to procreate, the physical Earth would eventually lack the space to hold the population.

For if Immortals should have generated, as Mankind doth now; the Earth in a small time, would not have been able to afford them a place to stand on.

• The author argues that eternal life after the resurrection involves no generation or marriage, drawing a direct parallel between the life Adam lost and the life Christ recovered.
• Eternal life is reckoned from the moment of absolution rather than the physical resurrection, just as death was reckoned from Adam's condemnation rather than his execution.
• The text challenges the conventional belief that the 'Kingdom of Heaven' refers to a remote celestial location like the Caelum Empyreum, suggesting instead that God's kingdom may remain on Earth.
• The author posits that immortality is not an inherent property of the human soul's essence but a gift of grace bestowed by God's will upon the faithful.
• Scriptural references to the dead 'living to God' are interpreted as being enrolled in the Book of Life for future resurrection rather than possessing an immediate disembodied existence in heaven.

And when our Saviour Christ, by the preaching of his Ministers, shall have perswaded the Jews to return, and called the Gentiles to his obedience, then shall there be a new Kingdome of Heaven, because our King shall then be God, whose Throne is Heaven; without any necessity evident in the Scripture, that man shall ascend to his happinesse any higher than Gods Footstool the Earth.

• The author argues that the human soul is not naturally immortal or independent of the body, but rather achieves immortality only through the resurrection.
• Scriptural evidence from the Book of Job is used to illustrate that man remains in the grave until the heavens are dissolved at the day of judgment.
• The Kingdom of God is defined as a civil commonwealth located on Earth, established by covenant and ruled by God's lieutenant.
• The author asserts that religious doctrines must ultimately be determined by the sovereign power to ensure civil stability and protection.
• The location of the afterlife for both the saved and the damned is described as being on Earth or 'under ground' rather than in a separate celestial or infernal realm.

But man dyeth, and wasteth away, yea, man giveth up the Ghost, and where is he?

• The author argues that biblical descriptions of hell as a 'bottomless pit' are not literal geographic facts, as the finite Earth cannot contain infinite depth compared to the heavens.
• Scriptural references to the place of the damned often draw from historical or miraculous destructions, such as the swallowing of Corah or the drowning of the giants in the flood.
• The 'Lake of Fire' is interpreted as a metaphor derived from the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, signifying total destruction rather than a specific location of eternal torture.
• The concept of 'Utter Darkness' is explained as 'External Darkness,' referring to being cast out from the habitation of God's elect rather than a specific physical quality of light.
• Hell and death being cast into the lake of fire is interpreted as the final abolition of mortality itself after the Day of Judgment.

Not that the Writers of the Scripture would have us beleeve, there could be in the globe of the Earth, which is not only finite, but also (compared to the height of the Stars) of no considerable magnitude, a pit without a bottome.

• The concept of Hell, or Gehenna, originates from the Valley of Hinnon, a literal site of child sacrifice and later a burning refuse heap for the city's filth.
• The author argues that descriptions of unquenchable fire and eternal punishment are metaphorical rather than literal geographic locations under the earth.
• Terms like Satan, Devil, and Abaddon are identified as appellatives or titles describing an office or quality—such as 'Enemy' or 'Accuser'—rather than proper names for individual demons.
• Hellish torments like 'weeping and gnashing of teeth' represent the psychological grief and shame of those who realize they have lost eternal felicity through their own disobedience.
• The 'Enemy' and his kingdom are positioned as earthly adversaries to the Church, suggesting that the struggle between the saved and the damned occurs on a terrestrial plane.

Which significant names, Satan, Devill, Abbadon, set not forth to us any Individuall person, as proper names use to doe; but onely an office, or quality; and are therefore Appellatives.

• The author argues that while the Resurrection is universal, eternal life is a promise reserved only for the saved, not the reprobate.
• The 'Second Death' is interpreted as a literal final destruction of the wicked rather than a state of eternal conscious torment.
• Everlasting fire refers to an unquenchable state or place of punishment that exists forever, but individual sinners within it are eventually destroyed.
• Salvation is defined as the restoration of immortality and the absolute security against all evils, including sickness and death.
• The remission of sins is functionally identical to being saved from misery, as death and suffering are the direct punishments of sin.

And although in Metaphoricall speech, a Calamitous life Everlasting, may bee called an Everlasting Death yet it cannot well be understood of a Second Death.

• The author distinguishes between temporal salvation from enemies and the general eternal salvation promised in the Kingdom of Heaven.
• A logical argument is presented that salvation implies a glorious reign, conquest, and triumph, which suggests a physical location on Earth rather than a celestial escape.
• Scriptural evidence from Isaiah is used to describe Jerusalem as a quiet, eternal habitation where God acts as Judge, Lawgiver, and King.
• The text posits that salvation will be realized on Earth when Christ returns to reign in Jerusalem, extending this grace to the Gentiles.
• The condition of the saved is characterized by the forgiveness of iniquity and the total absence of sickness or physical infirmity.

For by Salvation is set forth unto us, a glorious Reign of our King, by Conquest; not a safety by Escape: and therefore there where we look for Salvation, we must look also for Triumph; and before Triumph, for Victory; and before Victory, for Battell; which cannot well be supposed, shall be in Heaven.

• The author argues that salvation is historically and scripturally rooted in the Jewish tradition, beginning with the tribe of Judah and extending to the Gentiles.
• Scriptural prophecies from Joel and Obadiah are used to suggest that the final deliverance and the Kingdom of God will be established physically upon the Earth, specifically in Mount Zion and Jerusalem.
• The text challenges the common belief in the ascension of saints to a celestial or ethereal heaven, noting a lack of clear scriptural evidence for such a transition.
• The 'Kingdom of Heaven' is interpreted not as a location for subjects, but as a description of God's reign from his throne in heaven over his 'footstool' on Earth.
• The author categorizes biblical history into three distinct epochs: the Old World before the flood, the Present World of Christ's teaching, and the World to Come after the Day of Judgment.

But that the Subjects of God should have any place as high as his throne, or higher than his Footstoole, it seemeth not sutable to the dignity of a King, nor can I find any evident text for it in holy Scripture.

• The author describes the future kingdom where Christ will return in glory to gather the elect and reign everlastingly over a new Earth.
• Salvation is framed as a process requiring a ransom, though this ransom is not a market-value satisfaction for sin but a sacrifice God chooses to accept in mercy.
• The text argues that while promises of good bind the promiser, threats of evil do not bind the punisher, allowing God to remain just while showing mercy.
• The term 'Church' is analyzed etymologically, originating from the Greek word for a magistrate's assembly and later applied to the physical house of God.
• A distinction is made between a 'Lawful Church' called by authority and a 'confused' assembly incited by tumultuous or seditious clamor.

Even amongst men, though the promise of Good, bind the promiser; yet threats, that is to say, promises, of Evill, bind them not; much lesse shall they bind God, who is infinitely more mercifull then men.

• The term 'Church' is used in various biblical contexts, ranging from the universal body of believers to specific household congregations or the elect in the afterlife.
• A Church can only be considered a single legal person with the power to act and command when it is a lawful congregation authorized by a sovereign.
• The author defines a Church as a company of Christians united under one sovereign, making the Church and the Christian Commonwealth identical entities.
• There is no universal Church on Earth that all Christians must obey, as there is no global sovereign with authority over all independent states.
• The distinction between temporal and spiritual government is a false dichotomy that leads to civil war and internal conflict within the individual.
• To prevent contradictory doctrines and social faction, the civil sovereign must serve as the chief pastor and final authority on both state and religious matters.

Temporall and Spirituall Government, are but two words brought into the world, to make men see double, and mistake their Lawfull Soveraign.

• The covenant between God and Abraham established the Civil Sovereign as the primary mediator of divine commands to the people.
• Abraham's authority extended beyond natural moral laws to include the interpretation and enforcement of positive laws delivered through supernatural visions.
• Because God spoke only to Abraham, his subjects were bound to obey his religious commands as their wills were legally involved in his own.
• The text argues that modern sovereigns possess the same right as Abraham to punish individuals who claim private spiritual revelations to oppose state laws.
• Internal belief remains outside the scope of human law because it is involuntary and known only to God, whereas external profession is subject to sovereign control.

As for the inward Thought, and beleef of men, which humane Governours can take no notice of, (for God onely knoweth the heart) they are not voluntary, nor the effect of the laws, but of the unrevealed will, and of the power of God.

• The covenant at Mount Sinai established the Israelites as a Sacerdotal Kingdom, with Moses serving as God's primary lieutenant during his lifetime.
• Because Moses could not claim authority through inheritance from Abraham, his initial power rested solely on the people's belief in his miracles and divine conferences.
• The text argues that divine commands alone cannot oblige a people if they are delivered through a mediator; therefore, Moses' authority required the explicit consent of the governed.
• The Israelites formally transferred their obedience to Moses when, terrified by divine manifestations, they requested that he speak to them in place of God.
• Despite the priesthood being settled on Aaron and his heirs, Moses retained absolute sovereign power as the founder and legislator of the commonwealth.
• Scriptural evidence, such as Moses being uniquely called to approach God on the mountain, confirms his status as the sole representative of the Person of God.

And they said unto Moses, speak thou with us, and we will hear, but let not God speak with us lest we die.

• The text argues that Moses held exclusive sovereignty over the Israelites, encompassing both civil policy and religious authority as the sole messenger of God.
• Biblical precedents, such as the destruction of Corah and the subordination of Aaron, are used to demonstrate that any challenge to the central sovereign is a violation of divine order.
• The author likens the interpretation of Scripture to the forbidden bounds of Mount Sinai, suggesting that subjects must not 'pry' into the commands given to their rulers.
• The seventy elders who prophesied did not possess independent spiritual authority but were granted a spirit conformable and subordinate to that of Moses.
• The passage concludes that in a Christian commonwealth, the sovereign holds the place of Moses and serves as the final interpreter of God's laws.

For the Scriptures since God now speaketh in them, are the Mount Sinai; the bounds whereof are the Laws of them that represent Gods Person on Earth.

• The text argues that no subject should claim prophetic authority in opposition to the established doctrine of the sovereign leader.
• Following the death of Moses, supreme sovereignty over Israel descended to the High Priest Eleazar by virtue of the divine covenant.
• The High Priest held the unified power of war, peace, judicature, and religious worship, effectively merging civil and ecclesiastical authority.
• During the period of the Judges, the lack of a central king led to a breakdown in the exercise of power, though the legal right to govern remained with the priesthood.
• Obedience to the Judges was based on reverence for their extraordinary divine favor rather than a formal duty to an established office.

Therefore the Civill and Ecclesiasticall Power were both joined together in one and the same person, the High Priest; and ought to bee so, in whosoever governeth by Divine Right.

• The transition from Judges to Kings in Israel marked a shift where both religious and political authority were consolidated in the monarch.
• By requesting a king, the Israelites effectively rejected the direct government of God and the high priest's role as His primary vice-regent.
• Under the monarchy, the high priest's authority became ministerial rather than magisterial, existing only at the discretion of the king.
• Historical biblical examples, such as Solomon deposing Abiathar and Josiah consulting a prophetess, demonstrate the king's supremacy over religious matters.
• The text argues that the civil law and the law of Moses were one and the same, making the king the ultimate judge of both spiritual and temporal affairs.

For when they said to Samuel 'make us a King to judge us, like all the Nations,' they signified that they would no more bee governed by the commands that should bee laid upon them by the Priest, in the name of God.

• The author argues that the ancient Israelites frequently used complaints about policy or religion as excuses to revolt whenever their governors displeased them.
• Following the era of Joshua, generations lacking firsthand experience of divine wonders relied on their own reason and obeyed only those leaders they deemed capable of military deliverance.
• Even when the people demanded a king, they maintained a dual loyalty that allowed them to use religious tradition as a check against the monarch's civil authority.
• The historical presence of prophets who controlled or reproved kings does not necessarily mean the kings lacked supreme religious right, but rather that they were often politically vulnerable.
• The text suggests that throughout the history of Judah and Israel, subjects kept a 'pretext' of justice or piety in reserve to discharge their obedience when convenient.

So that they alwaies kept in store a pretext, either of Justice, or Religion, to discharge themselves of their obedience, whensoever they had hope to prevaile.

• In the Jewish Commonwealth, the sovereign held supreme authority over both the state and external religious worship as the representative of God.
• The office of the Messiah is divided into three distinct roles: Redeemer, Pastor or Teacher, and Eternal King.
• These three roles correspond to different temporal periods, spanning from Christ's first coming to his future eternal reign.
• The act of redemption is framed not as a strict legal satisfaction of justice, but as a sacrifice accepted through the mercy of God.
• The author draws a direct typology between the Messiah and the two goats of the Old Testament atonement ritual: the sacrificed goat and the scapegoat.

He was both the sacrificed Goat, and the Scape Goat; “Hee was oppressed, and he was afflicted (Isa. 53.7.); he opened not his mouth; he brought as a lamb to the slaughter, and as a sheep is dumbe before the shearer, so opened he not his mouth:”

• The author argues that Christ did not hold kingly power during his earthly life because a redeemer has no title to the redeemed until the ransom of death is paid.
• Scriptural evidence is used to show that Christ's kingdom is not of this present world but is reserved for the world to come following the general resurrection.
• While on Earth, Christ deferred civil and judicial authority to existing powers like the Scribes and Pharisees, explicitly declining to act as a judge or divider.
• The primary purpose of Christ's first coming was to restore the Kingdom of God by establishing a new covenant and offering himself as a sacrifice for sins.
• Christ's earthly office consisted of proclaiming himself as the Messiah and persuading the elect, both Jews and Gentiles, to embrace the coming kingdom.

For as much therefore, as he that Redeemeth, hath no title to the Thing Redeemed, before the Redemption, and Ransome paid; and this Ransome was the Death of the Redeemer; it is manifest, that our Saviour (as man) was not King of those that he Redeemed, before hee suffered death.

• Christ's preaching and miracles were intended to prepare believers for a future immortality rather than to establish an immediate earthly sovereignty.
• The period of Christ's ministry is defined as a 'Regeneration' or a 'Kingdom of Grace,' serving as an earnest of the future kingdom without defying current magistrates.
• Christ's actions were not seditious toward Jewish or Roman law, as he commanded the payment of tribute to Caesar and refused to act as a civil judge.
• The office of King is reserved for the time of the Resurrection, when Christ will reign in his human nature and the Apostles will sit upon thrones of judgment.
• Pontius Pilate's refusal to alter the title of Christ's condemnation serves as a testament that no legal fault or secular rebellion was found in him.

And notwithstanding their clamour, refused to alter it; saying, 'What I have written, I have written.'

• The author argues that Christ's kingdom is exercised through his human nature and is subordinate to God the Father, functioning as a viceregent.
• A strong parallel is drawn between the administrative structures of Moses and Christ, specifically comparing the twelve princes of tribes to the twelve Apostles.
• The seventy elders authorized by Moses to prophecy are viewed as the historical precedent for the seventy disciples ordained by Christ to preach to all nations.
• Baptism is interpreted as a rite of admission into the Kingdom of God, potentially derived from Mosaic laws regarding the cleansing of lepers.
• The text suggests that baptismal washing may also mirror ancient Greek customs where men thought to be dead were ritually washed to be reborn into society.

Other men made scruple to converse with him, as they would doe to converse with a Ghost, unlesse hee were received again into the number of men, by Washing, as Children new born were washed from the uncleannesse of their nativity, which was a kind of new birth.

• The author argues that Christian sacraments like Baptism and the Lord's Supper are adaptations of older Jewish legal ceremonies and the Paschal feast.
• Christ is presented as a subordinate lieutenant to God the Father, mirroring the relationship between Moses and God in the Old Testament.
• The concept of 'Person' is defined as a relative term to a representer, allowing one divine substance to be multiple persons through different representatives like Moses and Christ.
• Ecclesiastical power is traced from the Apostles through the ceremony of the imposition of hands, which serves as a seal of commission to preach.
• The history of the Church is divided into two distinct eras: the period before the conversion of sovereign kings and the period following their embrace of Christianity.

For Person being a relative to a Representer, it is consequent to plurality of Representers, that there bee a plurality of Persons, though of one and the same Substance.

• The author defines a 'Person' in a theological context as that which is represented by another, rather than a distinct substance.
• God is described as having been 'personated' three times: first by Moses and the High Priests, second by Jesus as man, and third by the Apostles and their successors.
• The Trinity is interpreted as one and the same God represented across three different historical periods and roles.
• The text distinguishes between the Trinity in Heaven, which shares one substance, and the Trinity on Earth (Spirit, Water, and Blood), which share only a unified testimony.
• The primary role of these divine representations is to bear witness to the promise of eternal life through Jesus Christ.

For as Moses, and the High Priests, were Gods Representative in the Old Testament; and our Saviour himselfe as Man, during his abode on earth: So the Holy Ghost, that is to say, the Apostles, and their successors, in the Office of Preaching, and Teaching, that had received the Holy Spirit, have Represented him ever since.

• The names Father, Son, and Holy Spirit represent different historical personifications of God's authority through Moses, Jesus, and the Apostles.
• Ecclesiastical power is fundamentally defined as the power to teach and counsel rather than the power to command or coerce.
• Because Christ's kingdom is not of this world, his ministers cannot claim sovereign or legal authority over others unless they are also civil kings.
• The period between the Ascension and the Resurrection is a time of preparation and regeneration, not a period of actual reigning.
• Faith cannot be compelled by law or force, as it depends entirely on internal belief and persuasion rather than external obedience.
• The metaphors of fishing, leaven, and mustard seeds used by Christ emphasize winning souls through attraction rather than hunting them through compulsion.

And therefore he said not to his Apostles, hee would make them so many Nimrods, Hunters Of Men; But Fishers Of Men.

• Ministers of Christ possess no inherent right to punish or command others by virtue of their religious title alone.
• Sovereign civil power remains the only lawful authority for enforcing laws and punishing contradiction within a commonwealth.
• Scriptural mandates from St. Paul and St. Peter require Christians to obey all earthly rulers, including infidels, in all external matters.
• Faith is an internal gift from God that cannot be coerced or removed by the commands or tortures of a sovereign.
• External profession of faith is considered a mere gesture of obedience to the state, which a believer may perform without compromising their heart's devotion.

Profession with the tongue is but an externall thing, and no more then any other gesture whereby we signifie our obedience.

• The author argues that outward religious conformity commanded by a sovereign does not constitute a personal denial of faith, as the action belongs to the state rather than the individual.
• Using the biblical example of Naaman, the text suggests that bowing before idols under civil obligation is permissible if the heart remains true to God.
• The text posits that requiring subjects to die for their private beliefs would authorize universal disobedience and violate the fundamental Law of Nature regarding reciprocity.
• A distinction is drawn between original Martyrs, who were direct witnesses to Christ's resurrection, and later believers who only testify to the reports of others.
• The author suggests that those without a specific calling to preach are not obligated to sacrifice their lives for outward profession if it conflicts with the laws of their country.

That action is not his, but his Soveraigns; nor is it he that in this case denyeth Christ before men, but his Governour, and the law of his countrey.

• True martyrdom is reserved solely for witnessing to the fundamental article that Jesus is the Christ, rather than for defending every private theological interpretation.
• A martyr is defined by the testimony itself rather than the act of dying, and one is not obligated to suffer death for a cause they were not specifically commissioned to preach.
• The authority of preachers is ministerial rather than magisterial, functioning like a herald or crier who proclaims a king's arrival without the right to command.
• The commission of the Apostles was directed toward converting infidels and unbelievers, as those who already believe require no further witness.
• Preachers are described as laborers in the harvest rather than lords, emphasizing that their role is to serve and teach rather than to exercise civil authority.

Now Preaching in the originall, is that act, which a Crier, Herald, or other Officer useth to doe publiquely in Proclaiming of a King. But a Crier hath not right to Command any man.

• Teaching that Jesus is Christ does not exempt believers from obeying the laws and commands of their earthly sovereigns.
• Baptism is defined as a sign of becoming a loyal subject to God and an acknowledgment of the Apostles' doctrine as the path to eternal life.
• The authority of earthly rulers remains absolute until the Day of Judgment, as Christ will only put down human rule at his second coming.
• The power to remit or retain sins is a conditional authority granted to the Apostles, dependent entirely on the sincerity of the penitent's heart.
• Ecclesiastical absolution is rendered void and serves only to aggravate sin if the individual's repentance is feigned.

This, being our promise in Baptisme; and the Authority of Earthly Soveraigns being not to be put down till the day of Judgment.

• The authority to grant absolution or baptism is strictly limited to the observation of external marks of repentance, as internal sincerity is known only to God.
• Judgment regarding the truth of a person's repentance belongs to the Church assembly or its representative rather than a single individual.
• While the assembly determines the merit of a cause, the formal sentence of excommunication is pronounced by a pastor or apostle acting as a prolocutor.
• Excommunication is defined as being cast out of the synagogue or congregation, a practice derived from Jewish customs of separating the contagious or unclean.
• In the era before Christian sovereigns, the primary effect of excommunication was the social avoidance of the offender by the faithful community.

But seeing no man is able to discern the truth of another mans Repentance, further than by externall marks, taken from his words, and actions, which are subject to hypocrisie; another question will arise, Who it is that is constituted Judge of those marks.

• Excommunication in the early Church was primarily a social withdrawal, likened to treating a person as a 'Heathen' or a 'Publican' with whom one would not eat.
• The Church lacked the inherent power to physically bar individuals from assembly places, as all physical locations remained under the dominion of the civil magistrate.
• For apostates or non-believers, excommunication carried no worldly damage or spiritual terror, as its efficacy relied entirely on the subject's belief in Christ's future judgment.
• The spiritual weight of excommunication was defined as a 'delivery to Satan,' representing exclusion from Christ's future kingdom and the retention of sins.
• In the era before Christian civil authority, excommunication was used to correct scandalous behavior and injustice rather than to punish differences in theological opinion.

The dammage redounded rather to the Church, by provocation of them they cast out, to a freer execution of their malice.

• The author argues that Scripture does not authorize the excommunication of believers who hold private opinions that do not destroy the foundation of faith.
• Biblical commands to reject or avoid heretics are interpreted as instructions to cease fruitless disputation rather than to cast individuals out of the Church.
• Pastors are cautioned against creating new articles of faith from small controversies, which imposes unnecessary burdens on the consciences of the faithful.
• Excommunication requires a lawful assembly with jurisdictional power, meaning one independent church cannot excommunicate another without causing schism.
• The sentence of excommunication is deemed ineffective against a sovereign prince because subjects are bound by the law of nature to remain in their ruler's company.

For all Subjects are bound to be in the company and presence of their own Soveraign (when he requireth it) by the law of Nature; nor can they lawfully either expell him from any place of his own Dominion, whether profane or holy.

• Excommunication is naturally ineffective against sovereign states and serves primarily as a tool for instigating unnecessary international conflict.
• A true believer in Christ is spiritually immune to the harms of excommunication because their salvation is secured by God rather than human decree.
• The church lacks the authority to judge manners or actions unless they violate the laws of the commonwealth, which remain the primary rule of conduct.
• Ecclesiastical power is limited to teaching and direction for the next world rather than command and coercion in the present world.
• The concept of the 'Thunderbolt of Excommunication' is a false imagery derived from Roman claims of universal kingship that contradict Christ's own teachings.
• Excommunication lacks any real power or terror when it is not supported by the civil authority of the state.

The name of Fulmen Excommunicationis (that is, the Thunderbolt Of Excommunication) proceeded from an imagination of the Bishop of Rome, which first used it, that he was King of Kings.

• St. Paul’s approach to converting the Jews relied on persuasion through reasoning from shared Scriptures rather than legal command.
• By using logical inferences from written principles, a speaker effectively makes the listener the judge of the argument's validity.
• The text argues that no single human authority was established as the infallible interpreter of Scripture during the early apostolic mission.
• Early Christian preaching focused on the core message of Christ's kingship and resurrection rather than establishing administrative legal codes.
• The Apostles exhorted converts to obey their existing secular rulers, as the spiritual kingdom they preached was yet to come.

But whosoever perswadeth by reasoning from principles written, maketh him to whom hee speaketh Judge, both of the meaning of those principles, and also of the force of his inferences upon them.

• The author argues that the early Church and Christ himself encouraged individuals to read and interpret the Scriptures for themselves rather than relying solely on priestly mediation.
• A distinction is made between 'Canons' as advisory rules or precepts and 'Laws' which carry the power of compulsion and obligation.
• Scripture only becomes law when it is issued by a sovereign authority whom the people are bound to obey, a state that requires 'Kings to be Pastors' or vice versa.
• The Ten Commandments are identified as the first written Law of God, transitioning humanity from the internal Law of Nature to a formal legal covenant.
• The first table of the Decalogue is interpreted as a political law of sovereignty, establishing God as King and forbidding the questioning of his appointed lieutenants like Moses.

But that could not be till Kings were Pastors, or Pastors Kings.

• The author argues that while God is the ultimate author of the Ten Commandments, they only gained the force of law through the recognition of a civil sovereign.
• The Israelites' obligation to follow the Decalogue and subsequent laws stemmed from their explicit promise to obey Moses as God's intermediary.
• Judicial and Levitical laws, whether written or oral, were established as canonical specifically through the authority of Moses in his role as civil leader.
• The historical recovery of lost laws during the reign of Josiah demonstrates that the authority to reinstate scripture as law remains with the civil sovereign.
• A distinction is made between the Laws of Nature, which bind all people, and the positive laws of the Israelite Commonwealth, which required a specific political covenant.

Speak them thou to us, and we will hear thee; but let not God speak to us, lest we die.

• The authority to establish Scripture as binding law resides exclusively with the civil sovereign rather than religious figures alone.
• Historical evidence suggests the Old Testament was not formally canonical until the restoration of the Jewish commonwealth under Esdras.
• Before the formalization of the canon, the Israelites often lacked a written word and ruled according to personal discretion or various prophets.
• While early Christians revered apostolic writings as divine, these texts only became universal law when authorized by Christian sovereigns like Constantine.
• A distinction is made between personal faith, which allows an individual to accept a doctrine, and legal canon, which makes disobedience an act of injustice.

But in that time, when not the Power and Authority of the Teacher, but the Faith of the Hearer caused them to receive it, it was not the Apostles that made their own Writings Canonicall, but every Convert made them so to himself.

• A law is defined strictly as a commandment from a sovereign authority with the power to punish disobedience.
• Religious teachings and scriptures are considered advice or counsel rather than law unless mandated by a civil sovereign.
• Internal faith remains invisible and exempt from human jurisdiction, but outward actions must conform to civil law to avoid injustice.
• Christ and his apostles did not come to legislate or compel by the sword, but to persuade and prepare humanity for a future kingdom.
• The New Testament only carries the force of law in territories where the lawful civil power has formally adopted it as such.

He sent them out as Sheep unto Wolves, not as Kings to their Subjects.

• The author argues that the decrees of the early Apostles were not laws in a legal sense, but rather invitations and conditions for salvation.
• True legislative power belongs only to civil sovereigns, as a kingdom must be present and established to issue binding laws.
• Disobeying apostolic doctrine is not a new sin of rebellion, but rather a refusal of the conditions required for the remission of past sins.
• Pastors and church councils may deliberate on what doctrine to teach, but they cannot compel the behavior of others without the authority of the state.
• The New Testament and other scriptures only attained the status of law when they were codified by kings or sovereign assemblies.

For first, the Apostles power was no other than that of our Saviour, to invite men to embrace the Kingdome of God; which they themselves acknowledged for a Kingdome (not present, but) to come; and they that have no Kingdome, can make no Laws.

• The author questions the antiquity of certain canonical lists, noting that the distinction between clergy and laity likely emerged later than the time of St. Peter.
• Ecclesiastical offices in the early church are divided into Magisterial roles, such as preaching and teaching, and Ministerial roles, such as the secular administration handled by Deacons.
• The essential mark of an Apostle was the specific requirement to be a witness to Christ's resurrection, necessitating personal experience with Jesus before or after his death.
• The election of Matthias demonstrates that the ordination of an Apostle was an act of the entire congregation rather than the exclusive authority of St. Peter.
• The mission of Paul and Barnabas, though prompted by the Holy Ghost, was formally authorized and declared by the specific local Church of Antioch.

So that here we see the ordination of this Apostle, was the act of the Congregation, and not of St. Peter, nor of the eleven, otherwise then as Members of the Assembly.

• Paul and Barnabas were established as Apostles through the Church of Antioch, demonstrating that apostolic authority could be conferred by the church body.
• Paul's status as a witness to the Resurrection was validated by Christ's direct appearance to him on the road to Damascus after the Ascension.
• The terms Bishop, Elder, Pastor, and Teacher were originally interchangeable names for the same office during the early apostolic era.
• Early church leadership was defined by teaching and persuasion rather than coercion, as the Kingdom of God was viewed as a future reality.
• Distinctions like Evangelist and Prophet referred to specific spiritual gifts, such as writing or interpretation, rather than formal administrative offices.

For there was then no government by Coercion, but only by Doctrine, and Perswading.

• The author argues that spiritual gifts like healing or speaking in tongues did not grant official church authority; only formal election to a teaching charge did.
• Historical evidence from the Acts of the Apostles suggests that figures like Matthias, Paul, and Barnabas were elected by the assembly of Christians rather than appointed by a single individual.
• The Greek term 'cheirotonesantes' is interpreted to mean ordination through the holding up of hands, a common democratic practice for choosing magistrates in ancient cities.
• Apostles and elders acted as presidents of these assemblies, responsible for calling the vote and pronouncing the winner, rather than unilaterally selecting the candidates.
• The text asserts that the early church followed local customs of plurality of votes—using voices, hands, or stones—to ensure the congregation chose its own leaders.

It was therefore the Assembly that elected their own Elders: the Apostles were onely Presidents of the Assembly to call them together for such Election, and to pronounce them Elected, and to give them the benediction, which now is called Consecration.

• The author argues that the Bishops of Rome never possessed the right to appoint their own successors, as evidenced by historical elections involving the people and clergy.
• A violent historical dispute between Damascus and Ursinicus is cited to show that early papal selection was a public and often chaotic process rather than a private appointment.
• A linguistic distinction is made between 'Ministers of the Word,' who serve Christ, and 'Deacons,' who serve the congregation's secular and administrative needs.
• The text asserts that only a civil sovereign has the lawful authority to command the church, as religious leaders are merely voluntary ministers of their undertakings.
• The author distinguishes between the powers of Deacons and Apostles, noting that while Deacons could baptize, only Apostles could confer the Holy Ghost through the imposition of hands.

Ammianus Marcellinus saith was so great, that Juventius the Praefect, unable to keep the peace between them, was forced to goe out of the City; and that there were above an hundred men found dead upon that occasion in the Church it self.

• The author observes a discrepancy between the miraculous powers promised to believers in scripture and the lack of such powers in the contemporary ministry.
• Historical evidence from the Acts of the Apostles shows that the congregation, rather than the Apostles alone, held the power to elect the first Deacons.
• Under the Mosaic Law, the Tribe of Levi was denied land ownership and instead maintained by public revenue consisting of tithes and offerings.
• The right to ecclesiastical revenue was historically established and maintained by the civil power, whether by God as King or by subsequent earthly sovereigns.
• During the time of Christ, the Apostles lived without fixed estates, relying on a common purse and the principle that a workman is worthy of his hire.

Which power either Christs Ministers in this age cannot conferre, or else there are very few true Beleevers, or Christ hath very few Ministers.

• The early maintenance of the Apostles and their successors was based on the principle of giving freely as they had freely received.
• Early Christian communities lived in common, but contributions of land and money were voluntary acts of goodwill rather than legal duties.
• Before the reign of Constantine, the wealth of the clergy depended entirely on the liberality of their flocks, leading to significant splendor for some urban bishops.
• While scripture establishes that those who preach the Gospel should live by it, the specific quantity of support was not determined by the pastors themselves.
• In the absence of civil sovereignty and tribunals, the Church had no power to legally enforce maintenance or tithes until secular laws were established.

The Bishops of those times by the liberality of their flock, and especially of Matrons, lived splendidly, were carryed in Coaches, and sumptuous in their fare and apparell.

• The author distinguishes between the historical civil sovereignty of Moses and the future kingdom of God promised through Christ.
• Civil sovereigns possess an inseparable right to judge which doctrines are conducive to peace and which lead to civil war.
• The conversion of a king to Christianity does not diminish his power; rather, it confirms him as the supreme pastor of his people.
• Even when a congregation elects its own ministers, the act is legally valid only through the authority and consent of the sovereign.
• The right to appoint pastors is a necessary function of the state to prevent conflicting loyalties that might overthrow the commonwealth.

For it is evident to the meanest capacity, that mens actions are derived from the opinions they have of the Good, or Evill, which from those actions redound unto themselves.

• The civil sovereign is the supreme pastor of the commonwealth, and all other religious ministers derive their authority to teach and preach directly from him.
• Religious leaders are viewed as civil ministers similar to judges or military commanders, serving the state rather than an independent spiritual hierarchy.
• The authority of the sovereign is held 'Jure Divino' (by divine right), whereas the authority of all other pastors is held 'Jure Civili' (by civil law).
• Allowing a foreign power like the Pope to appoint teachers is a voluntary delegation by the king, not a surrender of his inherent right to govern his subjects' education.
• Sovereigns possess the inherent right to perform all pastoral functions, including baptizing and administering sacraments, even if they choose to delegate these tasks.
• Clergy who claim authority through 'divine providence' rather than the king are accused of attempting to 'slip off the collar' of their civil subjection.

For in saying, Divina Providentia, which is the same with Dei Gratia, though disguised, they deny to have received their authority from the Civill State; and sliely slip off the Collar of their Civill Subjection, contrary to the unity and defence of the Common-wealth.

• Christian Kings possess the inherent right to perform baptisms and consecrations by virtue of their office, even if they rarely exercise these powers personally.
• The primary reason monarchs delegate ministerial duties is the immense burden of governing the commonwealth, which requires their constant attention at the helm of state.
• Precedent for this delegation is found in the actions of Jesus and St. Paul, who prioritized the greater charge of preaching and leadership over the lesser charge of baptizing.
• The ceremony of the imposition of hands is historically defined as a public gesture used to specifically designate or identify a person for a particular blessing, office, or punishment.
• Because a King's authority is supreme and his person is already publicly designated, the traditional succession of laying on of hands is not strictly necessary to validate his spiritual powers.

Whereby it is manifest, that the greater Charge, (such as is the Government of the Church,) is a dispensation for the lesse.

• The physical act of laying on hands serves as a visual designation of an individual, which is less subject to error than a verbal name.
• This ceremony predates Christianity, appearing in ancient Jewish rites and heathen temple consecrations to assure the eyes of the observers.
• In the New Testament, the practice was used by the Apostles to ordain pastors and deacons, signifying their specific mission rather than always conferring the Holy Spirit.
• The author argues that 'Holy Ghost' in the context of ordination refers to the specific gifts and talents necessary for the pastoral office rather than the third person of the Trinity.
• Sovereign rulers do not require the imposition of hands to teach or baptize, as their existing authority is merely redirected toward truth through baptism.

So naturall it is to design any individuall thing, rather by the Hand, to assure the Eyes, than by Words to inform the Eare in matters of Gods Publique service.

• The civil sovereign in a Christian nation holds supreme authority over both ecclesiastical and political matters, as the Church and the Commonwealth are composed of the same people.
• Historical precedents, such as King Solomon consecrating the Temple, demonstrate that monarchs possess the right to exercise religious functions and govern church policy.
• Any authority held by the Pope or other religious assemblies within a sovereign's territory is granted by civil right rather than divine right and can be revoked at the sovereign's discretion.
• The sovereign alone has the power to appoint interpreters of Scripture, enforce excommunications, and establish laws governing the external actions and words of subjects.
• While the sovereign governs external religious conduct, God remains the sole judge of the internal heart and conscience, which cannot be accused or tried by human law.

In summe, he hath the Supreme Power in all causes, as well Ecclesiasticall, as Civill, as far as concerneth actions, and words, for these onely are known, and may be accused; and of that which cannot be accused, there is no Judg at all, but God, that knoweth the heart.

• Sovereignty is absolute and indivisible, whether it resides in a single monarch or a supreme assembly in an aristocracy or democracy.
• Citizens are obligated to support their existing form of government, as subverting established power violates both natural and divine law.
• Religious pastors possess the power to teach and persuade through argument, but they lack the civil authority to command unless they hold sovereign office.
• The biblical 'rock' upon which the Church is built refers to the fundamental article of faith—that Jesus is the Christ—rather than the person of St. Peter.
• The Pope's authority outside his own dominions is likened to that of a schoolmaster rather than a master of a family, carrying no coercive power.

For Monarchy, Aristocracy, and Democracy, do mark out unto us three sorts of Soveraigns, not of Pastors; or, as we may say, three sorts of Masters of Families, not three sorts of Schoolmasters for their children.

• The author argues that Christ's reference to the 'Stone' refers to the fundamental article of faith—that Jesus is the Christ—rather than the person of St. Peter.
• The power of the 'Keys of Heaven' is interpreted as belonging to all supreme pastors, specifically Christian civil sovereigns within their own dominions.
• The text asserts that the right of teaching is inseparably annexed to civil sovereignty, making the sovereign the true supreme bishop of their territory.
• The author rejects the universal monarchy of the Pope, suggesting that even if St. Peter was Bishop of Rome, the title of supreme pastor belonged to the Emperor Constantine.
• Antichrist is defined specifically as a 'False Christ' or an impostor who pretends to be the Messiah, rather than a label for the Pope's authority.

But it had been a strange, and obscure speech, if our Saviour intending to build his Church on the Person of St. Peter, had said, “thou art a Stone, and upon this Stone I will build my Church,” when it was so obvious without ambiguity to have said, “I will build my Church on thee.”

• The author argues that the Antichrist must specifically deny that Jesus is the Christ or falsely claim to be the Christ himself.
• Because the Pope claims to be Christ's vicar rather than Christ himself, the author concludes the Pope does not meet the scriptural definition of Antichrist.
• The text asserts that the biblical 'Great Tribulation' associated with the Antichrist has not yet occurred, meaning the true Antichrist has not yet arrived.
• The author critiques Cardinal Bellarmine's interpretation of scripture, arguing that the Pope's claim to infallibility is based on a strained reading of Jesus's words to Peter.
• While acknowledging the Pope usurps worldly power over kings, the author maintains this is done in the name of Christ rather than in opposition to him.

Now seeing the Pope of Rome, neither pretendeth himself, nor denyeth Jesus to be the Christ, I perceive not how he can be called Antichrist; by which word is not meant, one that falsely pretendeth to be His Lieutenant, or Vicar Generall, but to be Hee.

• The author argues that Christ's kingdom is not of this world and will only be possessed upon his second coming, rather than through present earthly domination.
• St. Peter is presented not as a ruler with worldly jurisdiction, but as one charged with confirming the faith of his brethren regarding the future kingdom.
• The text asserts that the biblical commission to 'feed my sheep' is a duty of teaching that ultimately falls to Christian sovereigns within their own dominions.
• Sovereigns are identified as the supreme pastors of their subjects by virtue of their office and baptism, making them responsible for the religious instruction of their people.
• The author challenges the claim of papal infallibility, suggesting that scriptural promises of 'truth' were specific to historical contexts or the confession of faith.

Simon, Simon, Satan seeks by suggesting a present domination, to weaken your faith of the future.

• The author argues that biblical references to the High Priest's authority actually support the ecclesiastical supremacy of civil sovereigns rather than the Pope.
• He refutes the Pope's claim to infallibility in matters of salvation, noting that such a standard would apply to any Christian who is not damned.
• The text asserts that even if a Pope were incapable of error, he would still lack jurisdiction in the dominions of other princes without their consent.
• Civil laws are defined as the sole standard for righteousness in human manners, making the Pope's claim to moral supremacy an incitement to disobedience.
• The author concludes that there is no scriptural command to obey St. Peter or his successors when their orders conflict with those of a lawful civil sovereign.

Besides the Text, he argueth from Reason, thus, If the Pope could erre in necessaries, then Christ hath not sufficiently provided for the Churches Salvation; because he hath commanded her to follow the Popes directions.

• The author refutes Cardinal Bellarmine's claims that biblical passages grant the Pope or the Church legislative authority over secular matters.
• He argues that Christ's command to 'feed my sheep' is an instruction to teach and persuade rather than a mandate to enact laws.
• The text asserts that Christ's kingdom is not of this world, meaning his apostles were sent to prepare believers through preaching rather than to govern as earthly princes.
• A distinction is drawn between Law and Counsel, where the former is a command for the benefit of the prescriber and the latter is advice for the benefit of the recipient.
• The author concludes that ecclesiastical supremacy must be joined to civil sovereignty, as there are no true ecclesiastical princes outside of civil rulers.

The stile of a Law is, We Command: But, We Think Good, is the ordinary stile of them, that but give Advice; and they lay a Burthen that give Advice, though it bee conditionall, that is, if they to whom they give it, will attain their ends.

• The author argues that serving both a Pope and a Prince is impossible, as Christ taught that no man can serve two masters.
• Excommunication is defined not as a physical punishment like imprisonment or death, but as a simple withdrawal of company or a denunciation of future divine judgment.
• Apostolic instructions to disciples are characterized as advice or scholarly guidance rather than binding laws, comparable to a physician's prescription.
• The authority of a Christian Sovereign is paramount, as any pastor not ordained by the sovereign lacks legitimate standing within a Christian Commonwealth.
• While a King can command external actions through civil law, he cannot truly legislate belief, as faith remains an internal conviction beyond the reach of compulsion.

If all the Precepts he giveth Timothy, be Laws, why is not this also a Law, 'Drink no longer water, but use a little wine for thy healths sake'?

• The author argues that Apostolic teachings and Epistles were intended as spiritual counsel rather than binding civil laws.
• True Christian conversion is described as an inward change of heart through doctrine, which cannot be achieved by the external force of law.
• The power of the Apostles rested on their reputation and the faithful's desire for salvation rather than the right to punish or imprison.
• Granting legislative power to religious leaders outside of the civil sovereign would lead to the collapse of peace and justice within a commonwealth.
• Scriptural commands to obey pastors are interpreted as following advice for one's own benefit rather than submitting to a legal authority.

For our Saviour himself came not to Judge, that is, to be King in this world; but to Sacrifice himself for Sinners, and leave Doctors in his Church, to lead, not to drive men to Christ.

• The text examines the debate over whether bishops receive their authority directly from God or through the mediation of the Pope.
• Hobbes argues that if bishops claim authority 'De Jure Divino' through a superior, then civil magistrates and even constables could claim the same divine right through their sovereign.
• True jurisdiction is defined as the power to hear and determine legal causes, which requires the authority to make laws and use the sword of justice.
• Because Christ explicitly refused the role of a judge or divider in the temporal world, his apostles were granted the power to preach but not the power of legal jurisdiction.
• The author concludes that in any territory where the Pope is not the civil sovereign, he has no jurisdiction, and bishops must receive their legal authority from their respective civil rulers.

So that either hee must grant every Constable in the State, to hold his Office in the Right of God; or he must not hold that any Bishop holds his so, besides the Pope himselfe.

• The author argues that all religious authority within a Christian state is derived from the civil sovereign rather than an external religious figure like the Pope.
• The concept of the Church is equated with the Christian people, making the monarch the natural head of both the civil and religious spheres.
• The Pope's authority is characterized as didactic rather than archic, meaning it relies on teaching and willing obedience rather than coercive legal power.
• Historical variations in the size of bishoprics suggest that their jurisdiction is a human arrangement determined by princes rather than a divine mandate of equality.
• The text asserts that the Pope's historical power was granted by Roman Emperors and is not held by divine right outside of his own specific territories.

For the Power of the Pope, though hee were S. Peter, is neither Monarchy, nor hath any thing of Archicall, nor Craticall, but onely of Didacticall; For God accepteth not a forced, but a willing obedience.

• The author argues that kings possess the authority to ordain or deprive bishops based on historical biblical precedents like Solomon and Abiathar.
• He critiques the claim of 'Divine Right' for bishops, noting that there is no scriptural evidence to support immediate jurisdiction from God.
• The text examines the Pope's claim to 'indirect' supreme temporal power, which suggests a right to change kingdoms to ensure the salvation of souls.
• The author contrasts the legitimate civil sovereignty derived from the consent of the governed with the Pope's claim of divine right without such consent.
• He warns secular princes to consider the dangerous consequences of admitting papal authority over their own domestic civil jurisdictions.

For considering the love of Power naturally implanted in mankind, whosoever were made Pope, he would be tempted to uphold the same opinion.

• The Papacy claims the authority to depose secular rulers under the guise of ensuring the salvation of souls, a power it exercises at its own discretion.
• Historical precedents, such as the deposition of King Chilperique and the oppression of King John, serve as evidence of the Church's practical application of this doctrine.
• The author argues that the distinction between temporal and spiritual power is a linguistic illusion that dangerously divides the sovereignty of a state.
• A logical fallacy is identified in the argument that the subordination of an 'art' (civil governance) implies the personal subjection of the practitioner (the King) to another.
• Princes are urged to either take full control of the reins of government or surrender them entirely, as no man can effectively serve two masters.

For this distinction of Temporall, and Spirituall Power is but words.

• The author refutes the claim that temporal power must depend on spiritual power, arguing that Christian nations are distinct commonwealths rather than a single universal church.
• A commonwealth is defined by its sovereign representative, and without a single earthly head, there is no universal spiritual government with the power to command.
• The Pope lacks the divine mandate to judge or punish beyond excommunication, as Christ's government is not to be exercised until his second coming.
• Social cohesion depends entirely on the civil sovereign, who acts as the soul of the commonwealth; without this central authority, society dissolves into civil war.
• The author distinguishes between the natural determination of spiritual ends and the legal power to enforce the means to those ends, which remains with the civil ruler.

It is true, they cohaere together; but they depend onely on the Soveraign, which is the Soul of the Common-wealth; which failing, the Common-wealth is dissolved into a Civill war, no one man so much as cohaering to another, for want of a common Dependance on a known Soveraign.

• Hobbes argues that a spiritual commonwealth cannot exist in the physical world because Christ's kingdom is reserved for the afterlife following the resurrection.
• The text refutes Cardinal Bellarmine's claim that the Pope has the authority to depose kings based on charges of heresy or infidelity.
• Heresy is defined strictly as a private opinion maintained against the command of the civil sovereign, meaning a sovereign can never be a heretic by definition.
• While choosing a non-Christian king may be unwise, the act of deposing a chosen sovereign is always an unjust violation of the natural and eternal law of God.
• The author challenges the historical claim that early Christians only tolerated pagan emperors due to a lack of military force, citing Christ's own refusal to use angelic legions.

For Haeresie is nothing else, but a private opinion, obstinately maintained, contrary to the opinion which the Publique Person hath commanded to bee taught.

• The author argues that Christians must obey their temporal rulers, even heathen ones like Nero, not merely out of a lack of strength to resist but for the sake of conscience.
• St. Paul's advice for Christians to settle disputes among themselves is interpreted as a call for private arbitration rather than a challenge to the legal authority of heathen judges.
• The text asserts that every Christian prince is the supreme pastor of his own subjects, making him an equal to the Pope rather than a subordinate.
• The biblical command to 'feed my sheep' is interpreted strictly as a duty to teach rather than a mandate to depose kings or physically punish heretics.
• The author rejects the Pope's claim to the power of 'shutting up' erring kings, noting that Christ himself allowed the wheat and tares to grow together until the day of judgment.

For every Christian Prince, as I have formerly proved, is no lesse Supreme Pastor of his own Subjects, than the Pope of his.

• The author rejects the Pope's claim to coercive power over kings, arguing that pastoral duties do not grant political authority over sovereign rulers.
• Historical examples used to justify ecclesiastical rebellion, such as the actions of Jehoiada or St. Ambrose, are dismissed as either misunderstood or capital crimes.
• A primary cause of civil war is the perceived conflict between obeying the commands of God and the commands of a lawful earthly sovereign.
• The difficulty of dual obedience is often exploited by false teachers who use the name of God to further their own private ambitions and political influence.
• Conflict between state and religion is resolved by distinguishing between what is strictly necessary for salvation and what is merely a matter of civil law.

The fact of St. Ambrose, in Excommunicating Theodosius the Emperour, (if it were true hee did so,) was a Capitall Crime.

• Salvation is fundamentally achieved through two virtues: faith in Christ and obedience to the law.
• Because perfect innocence is impossible for humans, God accepts a sincere endeavor to obey and a turning away from sin as sufficient righteousness.
• Christ did not introduce new civil laws but rather reinforced the Law of Nature and the obligation to obey one's earthly sovereign.
• The Bible only functions as law in jurisdictions where the civil sovereign has formally established it as such; elsewhere, it remains counsel.
• Obedience to God is inextricably linked to the fulfillment of mutual pacts and the maintenance of civil order under a sovereign.

The Laws of God therefore are none but the Laws of Nature, whereof the principall is, that we should not violate our Faith, that is, a commandement to obey our Civill Soveraigns.

• Faith is fundamentally based on the person whom one believes, requiring that the believer has heard that person speak either supernaturally or through a representative.
• For those without direct revelation from God, faith rests upon the reputation of pastors and the authority of the sovereign who establishes the scriptures as the rule of faith.
• The author distinguishes between knowing and believing, arguing that many confuse the two when debating the infallibility of the church or private spirits.
• The civil sovereign is identified as the supreme pastor and the only person whom modern Christians should hear as speaking for God in a commonwealth.
• Ordinary faith is transmitted through the natural way of hearing lawful teachers, such as parents and appointed pastors, rather than through direct divine knowledge.

For they make not the question to be, 'Why we Beleeve it,' but 'How wee Know it;' as if Beleeving and Knowing were all one.

• Faith is characterized as a gift from God that is typically mediated through the hearing of teachers rather than through direct supernatural inspiration.
• The author distinguishes between ordinary faith and the claim of being a prophet, noting that those claiming direct inspiration are subject to church examination.
• The central thesis is that the only article of faith strictly necessary for salvation is the belief that Jesus is the Christ.
• The term 'Christ' is defined specifically as the promised King who reigns eternally under God to restore the life lost through Adam's sin.
• The primary purpose or 'scope' of all four Evangelists was to provide evidence and miracles to establish this single specific claim of kingship.

The Onely Article of Faith, which the Scripture maketh simply Necessary to Salvation, is this, that JESUS IS THE CHRIST.

• The primary commission of the Apostles was to preach a single core message: that Jesus is the Messiah and the King of Heaven.
• Salvation is described in Scripture as being accessible and easy, which contradicts the necessity of believing complex or disputed theological doctrines.
• The thief on the cross and little children are cited as evidence that a simple belief in Jesus as King is sufficient for eternal life.
• The Old Testament serves primarily to provide marks of identification for the Messiah, making the recognition of Jesus as that figure the only necessary article of faith.
• If modern theological articles like transubstantiation or purgatory were required for salvation, the 'yoke' of Christ would be impossibly heavy rather than light.

For if an inward assent of the mind to all the Doctrines concerning Christian Faith now taught, (whereof the greatest part are disputed,) were necessary to Salvation, there would be nothing in the world so hard, as to be a Christian.

• The author argues that the single article 'Jesus is the Christ' is the only belief strictly necessary for salvation and admission into the Kingdom of God.
• Scriptural evidence from the Acts of the Apostles suggests that a simple confession of this faith was sufficient for immediate baptism.
• This specific article serves as the 'Rock' and the foundation upon which all other church doctrines and theological structures are built.
• The text asserts that this belief is the ultimate litmus test for spiritual truth, overriding even the authority of angels or miracle-workers who might teach otherwise.
• Pastors who maintain this core foundation may still be saved even if they inadvertently teach false consequences or 'stubble' derived from it.
• Because this article is the measure of all other faith claims, it is the only one that can be considered truly fundamental to the Christian identity.

Therefore for the Beleef of this Article, we are to reject the Authority of an Angell from heaven; much more of any mortall man, if he teach the contrary.

• The author argues that the biblical 'trial by fire' refers to the Day of Judgment rather than the existence of Purgatory.
• Drawing from the Prophet Zachary, the text suggests that the fire serves to refine the saved like gold and silver while destroying the wicked.
• On the Day of Judgment, every man's doctrine will be tested, and those with false consequences built on true foundations will see their work perish but remain saved themselves.
• The belief that 'Jesus is the Christ' is the fundamental article of faith from which all other necessary doctrines, such as the Resurrection and Omnipotence, are logically deduced.
• A believer holds all necessary truths implicitly by accepting the primary foundation, even if they lack the skill to discern every complex theological consequence.

And then they that have built false Consequences on the true Foundation, shall see their Doctrines condemned; neverthelesse they themselves shall be saved, and passe unhurt through this universall Fire, and live eternally, to call upon the name of the true and onely God.

• Salvation requires both the internal will to obey God's law, defined as repentance, and the specific belief that Jesus is the Christ.
• Scriptural evidence from the teachings of St. Peter and St. Paul suggests that these two elements together constitute the entirety of what is necessary for eternal life.
• The author argues that the debate over whether faith or works justifies a person is largely irrelevant because both must concur for salvation.
• God accepts the sincere will to obey as the deed itself, meaning that righteousness is found in the endeavor rather than in perfect legal performance.
• Faith serves as the essential component that makes a person's plea of repentance acceptable to God, effectively justifying the believer.

And therefore when wee are said to be Justified by Works, it is to be understood of the Will, which God doth alwaies accept for the Work it selfe, as well in good, as in evill men.

• Obedience to a Christian sovereign is consistent with salvation because the sovereign upholds the essential article of faith that Jesus is the Christ.
• The Church and the Commonwealth are the same entity, meaning civil laws encompass all divine laws and laws of nature that a subject must follow.
• Even if a sovereign teaches false religious consequences, subjects are safe in their salvation by obeying the lawful command of their superior.
• Private individuals have no right to judge the actions of the sovereign, as even Apostles like Peter and Paul were known to disagree on religious superstructures.
• Subjects of an infidel king must still obey civil laws, as faith is internal and invisible, allowing for outward compliance without compromising the soul.
• Resistance to a lawful sovereign under the guise of religious duty is characterized as contumacy rather than genuine piety.

For their Faith, it is internall, and invisible; They have the licence that Naaman had, and need not put themselves into danger for it.

• True biblical interpretation requires understanding the overarching scope and design of the text rather than isolating single verses to obscure the truth.
• The Kingdom of Darkness is defined as a confederacy of deceivers who use erroneous doctrines to maintain dominion over men by extinguishing the light of nature and the Gospel.
• Spiritual darkness persists even within the Church, evidenced by the ongoing civil wars, social friction, and the pursuit of worldly felicity that plague Christendom.
• The primary causes of this darkness include the intentional abuse of Scripture and the introduction of heathen demonology, which treats phantasms of the brain as real entities.
• Humanity often remains unaware of its own intellectual and spiritual darkness because individuals cannot conceive of a light greater than what they have already experienced.

For it is not the bare Words, but the Scope of the writer that giveth the true light, by which any writing is to bee interpreted; and they that insist upon single Texts, without considering the main Designe, can derive no thing from them cleerly; but rather by casting atomes of Scripture, as dust before mens eyes, make every thing more obscure than it is.

• The author identifies four primary sources of religious error: the abuse of Scripture, the inclusion of Greek philosophy, the reliance on uncertain traditions, and the influence of hypocritical liars.
• A fundamental theological error is the claim that the 'Kingdom of God' refers to the present-day Church rather than a future state or the historical governance of Israel.
• The text argues that God's direct political kingdom ended with the election of Saul and will not be restored until the second coming of Christ.
• By falsely claiming the Church is God's current kingdom, religious leaders justify their own political power and challenge the authority of civil sovereigns.
• The Pope's claim as Christ's 'Vicar General' leads to the erroneous belief that civil kings must derive their legitimacy and crowns from ecclesiastical authority.

This power Regal under Christ, being challenged, universally by that Pope, and in particular Common-wealths by Assemblies of the Pastors of the place, (when the Scripture gives it to none but to Civill Soveraigns,) comes to be so passionately disputed, that it putteth out the Light of Nature.

• The Pope claims the authority to absolve subjects of their obedience to their lawful kings if those kings fail to purge heresies from their realms.
• By equating the modern Church with the biblical Kingdom of God, the clergy justifies the collection of tithes as a divine right inherited from the tribe of Levi.
• Ecclesiastical taxation often exceeds the burdens of secular governance, imposing a double tribute on the people that surpasses even the demands of historical tyrants.
• The distinction between Civil and Canon Law allowed the Pope to transform voluntary religious rules into mandatory commands enforced upon sovereign emperors.
• The Roman Church treats non-Catholic Christians more harshly than non-believers because it views all Christians as subjects under the Pope's absolute jurisdiction.

There ariseth such a Mist amongst their Subjects, that they know not a stranger that thrusteth himself into the throne of their lawfull Prince, from him whom they had themselves placed there.

• The author argues that the clergy have established a state within a state by claiming exemption from civil laws and taxes.
• A major abuse of Scripture is identified as the transformation of simple consecration into magical conjuration or enchantment.
• True consecration is defined as the dedication of an object to God's service, changing its use rather than its physical nature.
• The doctrine of transubstantiation is criticized as a form of lying that contradicts human senses and leads to gross idolatry.
• The text compares the claims of priests to the delusions of Egyptian conjurers, noting that priests demand belief in a change that cannot be seen.

But what should wee have thought of them, if there had appeared in their Rods nothing like a Serpent, and in the Water enchanted, nothing like Bloud, nor like any thing else but Water, but that they had faced down the King, that they were Serpents that looked like Rods, and that it was Bloud that seemed Water?

• The author argues that the literal interpretation of transubstantiation is a modern abuse of speech not established until the height of papal power.
• Roman Catholic rituals for baptism and consecration are characterized as forms of incantation or 'charms' rather than holy ceremonies.
• The text critiques the use of exorcisms on infants, noting the absurdity of treating children as if they were possessed by demons until a priest blows on them.
• Various rites including marriage and extreme unction are dismissed as being reliant on 'enchanted' oils and waters to ward off imaginary spirits.
• The author identifies a broader theological error stemming from the misinterpretation of scriptural terms regarding eternal life and death.

As if all Children, till blown on by the Priest were Daemoniaques: Again, before his entrance into the Church, he saith as before, “I Conjure thee, &c. to goe out, and depart from this Servant of God.”

• The author argues that eternal life is a gift of grace through Christ's passion rather than an inherent natural property of the human soul.
• A critique is offered of the common doctrine that souls are naturally immortal, which the author claims renders the sacrifice of Christ and the Tree of Life unnecessary.
• Scriptural analysis suggests that the term 'soul' refers to the life or the living creature itself, rather than an incorporeal substance that exists separately from the body.
• The text asserts that the concept of natural immortality was a 'contagion' from Greek demonology used to justify doctrines like Purgatory and exorcism.
• The author maintains that God's power to raise a dead carcass to life is sufficient for resurrection without needing to rely on the theory of an independent soul.

To salve this, it is said, that by Second, and Everlasting Death, is meant a Second, and Everlasting Life, but in Torments; a Figure never used, but in this very Case.

• The author argues that the belief in the soul's natural immortality led the Church to invent the concept of Purgatory for financial and political profit.
• He refutes the claim that the Pope or any religious body holds a present Kingdom of God, asserting that God's earthly kingdom ended with the election of Saul.
• The text highlights a power struggle between the Church of Rome and the Presbytery of Geneva, both of which claim supreme ecclesiastical authority over civil sovereigns.
• Scriptural passages regarding the Kingdom of God are reinterpreted to show that Christ's kingdom is a future event rather than a present reality established at the Resurrection.
• The author emphasizes that the role of the Apostles was not to rule as kings, but to act as witnesses and preachers preparing the world for Christ's eventual return.

But afterward the Church of Rome found it more profitable, to build for them this place of Purgatory; which by some other Churches in this later age, has been demolished.

• The author argues that the Kingdom of God did not begin at the Resurrection, as evidenced by the continued Christian prayer for the Kingdom to come.
• The biblical promise that some would see the Kingdom before death is interpreted as referring to the Transfiguration, which served as a visionary preview of Christ's future glory.
• The text critiques the use of allegorical scripture interpretations, such as the 'two swords' or 'two luminaries,' to justify the Pope's authority over civil sovereigns.
• The author characterizes the historical actions of Popes toward Emperors as a 'wanton insulting over Princes' that mocks both secular authority and sacred scripture.
• Consecration rites are described as being dependent on the discretion of Church governors rather than being strictly dictated by scriptural mandates.

Which is not arguing from Scripture, but a wanton insulting over Princes, that came in fashion after the time the Popes were growne so secure of their greatnesse, as to contemne all Christian Kings.

• The author argues that biblical consecrations by Moses and Solomon were simple, rational acts of cleansing and prayer rather than magical exorcisms.
• He critiques contemporary religious rituals, such as the use of spittle in baptism, as being neither decent nor justified by scriptural authority.
• The text challenges the notion that the human soul is naturally immortal, suggesting instead that eternal life is a gift of grace rather than an inherent property of mankind.
• Scriptural passages often used to prove the soul's survival are reinterpreted as expressions of human ignorance regarding what happens after death.
• The author cites Ecclesiastes to suggest that when the spirit returns to God, it signifies that only God knows its fate, rather than confirming a conscious existence.

Nor is it an unusuall phrase to say of things we understand not, “God knows what,” and “God knows where.”

• The author argues that immortality is a gift of divine grace rather than a natural property of the human soul.
• Scriptural evidence from Solomon is used to suggest that, naturally, humans and beasts share the same mortal fate and lack inherent preeminence.
• The living status of biblical patriarchs like Abraham is interpreted as a certainty of future resurrection through God's promise rather than an ongoing actual life.
• The concept of everlasting punishment is questioned, suggesting that 'everlasting death' has been misinterpreted as eternal life in torment.
• The text posits that while the faithful receive spiritual and immortal bodies at the Day of Judgment, the nature of the reprobate's existence remains distinct.

And yet I can find no where that any man shall live in torments Everlastingly.

• The author argues that there is no scriptural proof that the reprobate will live eternally in their individual persons like the angels.
• While the elect are restored to Adam's pre-sin state of spiritual incorruption, the reprobate remain in a state of gross and corruptible bodies.
• Eternal torments may refer to a perpetual fire that consumes a succession of sinners rather than the unending life of any single individual.
• The reprobate are expected to continue marrying and engendering after the resurrection, maintaining the immortality of the human kind but not the person.
• The doctrine of Purgatory is challenged by the assertion that there is no life of the soul separate from the life of the body.

The Fire, or Torments prepared for the wicked in Gehenna, Tophet, or in what place soever, may continue for ever; and there may never want wicked men to be tormented in them; though not every, nor any one Eternally.

• The author critiques the use of biblical fasting, such as David's mourning for Saul and Abner, as evidence for a third place between Heaven and Hell.
• He argues that mourning and fasting are social honors for the deceased or expressions of personal loss rather than attempts to aid souls in the afterlife.
• The text dismisses the use of rhetorical keywords like fire and burning in the Psalms as mere 'force of wit' used by Church Fathers to justify existing beliefs.
• The author challenges the interpretation of the 'world to come' as Purgatory, noting that scripture only defines three distinct worlds: the old, the present, and the eternal.
• He suggests that the unforgivable nature of sins against the Holy Ghost refers to the authority and severity of the Church's pastors rather than a post-mortem cleansing.

And thus with hard straining, hee has wrested those places to the proofe of a Purgatory; whereas it is manifest, that the ceremonies of Mourning, and Fasting, when they are used for the death of men, whose life was not profitable to the Mourners, they are used for honours sake to their persons.

• The author explores the possibility that sins against the Holy Ghost refer to the rejection of Church authority, potentially leading to a lack of absolution in both this world and the next.
• A historical custom of being baptized for the dead is discussed as a way for the living to act as sureties for the deceased, suggesting a path to salvation without the need for Purgatory.
• The text argues that there is no scriptural evidence for the existence of Purgatory or the necessity of a soul existing independently of the body between death and resurrection.
• The 'fire' mentioned in the Epistles is interpreted not as a place of torment, but as the metaphorical refining of the Elect during the Day of Judgment.
• Pastors are described as builders who may inadvertently build with 'stubble' or false doctrines, which will be burned away while the foundation of Christ remains.

For God, that could give a life to a peece of clay, hath the same power to give life again to a dead man, and renew his inanimate, and rotten Carkasse, into a glorious, spirituall, and immortall Body.

• The author challenges the theological basis for Purgatory by arguing that incorporeal souls cannot logically be subject to physical burning.
• He critiques the metaphorical interpretation of 'Baptism for the Dead' as acts of penance like fasting or alms, noting such usage lacks scriptural precedent.
• Scriptural references to 'purging fire' are reinterpreted as the trials of faith occurring at the Second Coming or Judgment Day rather than a middle state of torment.
• The biblical 'prison' mentioned in Matthew is identified as the grave rather than Purgatory, with the 'officer' representing death.
• The text asserts that Christ's passion serves as a full ransom for all sins, rendering the concept of paying off 'venial' sins in Purgatory unnecessary.

In which Allegory, the Offender is the Sinner; both the Adversary and the Judge is God; the Way is this Life; the Prison is the Grave; the Officer, Death.

• The author challenges the use of Matthew 5:22 to justify Purgatory, arguing that Christ was not defining different levels of punishment but expanding the definition of homicide to include inward anger.
• He asserts that the Jewish distinction between temporal courts is irrelevant to divine judgment, where Christ and his Apostles will serve as the sole judicature for all sins.
• The text refutes the idea that 'making friends of unrighteous Mammon' supports the invocation of departed saints, suggesting instead it refers to charity toward the living poor.
• The author argues that the thief on the cross being remembered by Christ does not imply a remission of sins after death, but rather a promise of future resurrection.
• He dismisses the interpretation of Christ's descent into hell as a mission to release souls from Purgatory, viewing it instead as a victory over the pains of death.

But I say unto you, to be Angry with ones Brother without cause; or to say unto him Racha, or Foole, is Homicide, and shall be punished at the day of Judgment, and Session of Christ, and his Apostles, with Hell fire.

• The author argues that visual perception is merely an internal motion of the organs rather than the external presence of the object itself.
• Imagination, memory, and dreams are defined as the continuation of these internal motions after the original stimulus has been removed.
• Ancient ignorance regarding the nature of sight led people to mistake internal phantasms for external, incorporeal spirits or demons.
• Political and religious leaders exploited these natural hallucinations to establish daemonology as a tool for social control and obedience.
• The classification of 'Good' and 'Evil' demons served as a system of rewards and punishments to ensure subjects followed the laws of the state.

As if the Dead of whom they Dreamed, were not Inhabitants of their own Brain, but of the Air, or of Heaven, or Hell; not Phantasmes, but Ghosts; with just as much reason, as if one should say, he saw his own Ghost in a Looking-Glasse.

• The author argues that Jewish beliefs regarding demons were derived from Greek philosophy and 'Doctrines of Devils' rather than original scripture.
• In this cultural context, the term 'Daemon' was reserved exclusively for evil spirits, while positive spiritual influence was attributed to the Spirit of God.
• Physical and mental ailments, such as madness, epilepsy, and even extreme fasting, were commonly misinterpreted as literal demonic possession.
• The text posits that Christ's commands to 'devils' were not literal addresses to spirits, but rather metaphorical commands to diseases, similar to his rebuking of the wind and sea.
• The author maintains that spirits are likely 'Bodily Spirits' like air, rather than incorporeal entities, suggesting that 'phantasmes' are often idols of the brain.

To the first I answer, that the addressing of our Saviours command to the Madnesse, or Lunacy he cureth, is no more improper, then was his rebuking of the Fever, or of the Wind, and Sea; for neither do these hear.

• The author argues that the Scriptures do not support the existence of incorporeal spirits or the physical possession of bodies by external spirits.
• The account of Christ being led into the wilderness and taken to high places by the Devil is interpreted as a vision rather than a literal physical transport.
• The phrase 'Satan entered into Judas' is explained as a metaphor for the emergence of a hostile and traitorous intention rather than a literal entry of a demon.
• The text suggests that the Holy Ghost and Satan often represent internal inclinations—graces and wicked cogitations—rather than external entities.
• The author addresses why Christ did not explicitly correct these misconceptions, suggesting that God leaves natural questions to human reason to test piety and industry.

Therefore the Entring of Satan, and his Wicked Purpose, was one and the same thing.

• The author argues that the core of Christian salvation is the simple belief in Christ as the Savior, rather than complex theological debates over spirits.
• He contends that spirits are corporeal but subtle and invisible, rejecting the notion of incorporeal phantasms as a misunderstanding of scripture.
• The historical shift from 'demoniacs' to 'mad-men' is presented as a change in nomenclature rather than a change in the nature of human disease.
• Supernatural gifts like exorcism and healing were withdrawn from the Church when its leaders began seeking worldly power and riches instead of Christ's kingdom.
• The worship of images is identified as a 'relique of Gentilisme' that persisted because converts failed to abandon their previous sensory-based idolatry.

But how it comes to passe, that whereas heretofore the Apostles, and after them for a time, the Pastors of the Church, did cure those singular Diseases, which now they are not seen to doe; as likewise, why it is not in the power of every true Beleever now, to doe all that the Faithfull did then.

• The author argues that idols are not physical objects but mental figments with no reality outside the human brain.
• Idolatry is framed as a political rebellion against God's sovereignty, as it replaces divine law with personal fancies.
• Worship is defined as the outward sign of internal honor, encompassing actions like prayer, obedience, and service.
• The distinction between divine and civil worship depends entirely on the intention of the worshipper rather than specific gestures.
• The prohibition of images was essential for maintaining the unity of the Jewish commonwealth and its dependence on the true God.

For it is the same deposing of a King, to submit to another King, whether he be set up by a neighbour nation, or by our selves.

• The author distinguishes between two types of servants: absolute slaves (Douloi) whose lives are at their masters' mercy, and voluntary domestic servants (Thetes) bound only by covenant.
• Religious service to God is described using both terms, implying that worship involves both the total submission of a slave and the voluntary obedience of a servant.
• An image is strictly defined as a resemblance of a visible body, such as a reflection in water or a phantasm in a dream, which exists only in the fancy or imagination.
• It is argued that it is impossible to create an image of anything invisible or infinite, meaning no true image can be made of God, the soul, or spirits.
• Material idols are created when humans give physical form to the 'phantastical inhabitants' of their own brains, such as centaurs or chimaeras.
• In a broader sense, an image can be a representation of authority, where a sovereign acts as the image of God on earth.

And from hence it is manifest, that there neither is, nor can bee any Image made of a thing Invisible.

• Images serve as representations or resemblances of visible things, often functioning as placeholders for mental concepts rather than accurate physical likenesses.
• Idolatry is defined as the voluntary act of honoring the material of an image, a mental phantasm, or a combination of both as if they were divine.
• Civil worship of a sovereign or authority figure is distinguished from idolatry by the intent and the nature of the power being acknowledged.
• Acts of worship performed under the threat of death or corporal punishment do not constitute idolatry because they do not signify internal honor.
• The distinction between divine and civil worship rests on whether one attributes supernatural powers, such as control over the weather, to a human or object.

But if hee that doth it, should suppose the Soule of the Prince to be in the Stool, or should present a Petition to the Stool, it were Divine Worship, and Idolatry.

• Holiness is defined not as an inherent quality of an object or place, but as a relation of appropriation to God through separation from common use.
• Worshiping toward an image or place is not idolatry if the action is authorized by a sovereign or divine command rather than private fancy.
• Idolatry occurs when one believes an infinite substance is literally confined within a finite object, creating 'idols of the brain' that are mere vanities.
• The distinction between the Brazen Serpent and the Golden Calf rests on the presence of a warrant from God or his lieutenant versus private institution.
• Christian practices like the Eucharist or the veneration of Christ are exempt from the charge of idolatry only if they are grounded in the revealed Word of God.
• Human institution of religious worship without sovereign authority constitutes a violation of the commandment against making images to oneself.

For such finite Gods, are but Idols of the brain, nothing reall; and are commonly called in the Scripture by the names of Vanity, and Lyes, and Nothing.

• The author argues that claiming divine inspiration is a supernatural entry into a man creates a dangerous dilemma between impiety and idolatry.
• True inspiration should be understood as God's promise to assist individuals in their study and preaching rather than a literal physical possession.
• Scandalous worship occurs when a person performs external honors to an idol out of fear while internally detesting the image.
• The sinfulness of scandalous worship depends largely on the status of the individual, as leaders have a greater responsibility to guide others.
• A pastor who performs external worship to an idol commits a perfidious betrayal of their charge, whereas a common person may be excused for acting out of fear of death.

For if they worship not the men whom they beleeve to be so inspired, they fall into Impiety; as not adoring Gods supernaturall Presence.

• The author distinguishes between images commanded by God, such as the Cherubim, and those devised by men, which constitute 'Will-Worship.'
• Worshipping before an image is only permissible if God specifically chose that place or object, whereas modern Roman Catholic practices are viewed as unauthorized traditions.
• Christian sovereigns are encouraged to follow the example of King Hezekiah by destroying images that have become objects of popular idolatry.
• Ignorant people often fall into the trap of believing images possess divine power, sometimes spurred by claims of bleeding or speaking statues.
• The text argues that people are naturally inclined to accept absurdities rather than undergo the intellectual effort of examining their own faith.

And wee see daily by experience in all sorts of People, that such men as study nothing but their food and ease, are content to beleeve any absurdity, rather than to trouble themselves to examine it.

• The author argues that creating images of God is impossible and results only in the creation of idols based on personal phantasms.
• Religious worship of images is identified as a remnant of pagan practices rather than a scriptural mandate, persisting because converted Gentiles refused to destroy their valuable artwork.
• Pagan statues were often repurposed for Christian use by simply renaming them, such as transforming images of Venus and Cupid into the Virgin Mary and Christ.
• The practice of canonizing saints is described as a direct continuation of the Roman 'Apotheosis,' where the state granted divine status to figures like Romulus and Julius Caesar.
• The title and authority of the 'Pontifex Maximus' held by the Pope is traced back to the supreme religious office of the ancient Roman Commonwealth.

It was easie, by giving them new names, to make that an Image of the Virgin Mary, and of her Sonne our Saviour, which before perhaps was called the Image of Venus, and Cupid.

• The authority of the Bishop of Rome originated from the political status of the city and the Emperor's civil sovereignty rather than divine privilege.
• The title of Pontifex Maximus was historically held by the Roman Emperors to signify supreme power over both state and religion.
• Many modern Catholic ceremonies, such as carrying the Pope under a canopy, are direct imitations of the divine honors once granted to Julius Caesar.
• Common religious practices like the use of wax candles, torches, and holy water are identified as relics of Greek and Roman heathen traditions.
• Christian holidays and festivals are described as adaptations of pagan celebrations, including the Bacchanalia, Saturnalia, and processions of Priapus.

Just as at this day the Popes are carried by Switzers under a Canopie.

• The author argues that many Roman Catholic ceremonies are merely 'old empty Bottles of Gentilisme' refilled with Christian doctrine, which will eventually burst.
• Philosophy is strictly defined as knowledge acquired through reasoning about the generation and properties of things to produce effects for human life.
• Prudence and experience are excluded from philosophy because they rely on memory and observation rather than the immutable truths of logical reasoning.
• Supernatural revelation and the authority of books are categorized as faith rather than philosophical knowledge, as they do not derive from cause-and-effect reasoning.
• The development of philosophy requires leisure, which is only possible within the security of established and great commonwealths.

I doubt not but he might find many more of these old empty Bottles of Gentilisme, which the Doctors of the Romane Church, either by Negligence, or Ambition, have filled up again with the new Wine of Christianity, that will not faile in time to break them.

• Philosophy emerges only in established commonwealths where peace and leisure provide the necessary environment for intellectual study.
• Ancient Eastern kingdoms like India, Persia, and Egypt developed philosophy long before the Greeks, who were initially too preoccupied with constant warfare.
• The rise of Athenian naval dominance and wealth created a class of citizens with the leisure to spend time telling news or debating public ideas.
• The term 'School' is derived from the Greek word for leisure, and 'Diatribe' signifies the passing of time, reflecting the idle nature of these early academic pursuits.
• Philosophical sects often took their names from the physical locations where masters loitered and taught, such as the Academy or the Stoa.
• Jewish synagogues functioned similarly to public schools, serving as centers where the law was read, expounded, and disputed every Sabbath.

From this it was, that the place where any of them taught, and disputed, was called Schola, which in their Tongue signifieth Leasure; and their Disputations, Diatribae, that is to say, Passing of The Time.

• The author argues that Greek schools of philosophy contributed nothing to actual science, noting that geometry—the mother of natural science—developed independently of these academic sects.
• Natural philosophy in these schools is dismissed as a dream expressed in insignificant language because it lacks the geometric foundation necessary to understand motion.
• Moral philosophy is criticized as being based on personal passions and subjective tastes rather than the objective civil laws required for a stable commonwealth.
• The logic taught in schools is described as a mere collection of word captions designed to puzzle opponents rather than a method for true reasoning.
• Jewish schools are accused of corrupting the Law of Moses with false commentaries and mixing scripture with Greek theology to create a 'phantastical' philosophy.

The naturall Philosophy of those Schools, was rather a Dream than Science, and set forth in senselesse and insignificant Language.

• The author argues that university philosophy has become a mere handmaid to Roman religion, replacing genuine inquiry with a dogmatic adherence to Aristotle.
• Geometry was historically excluded from these institutions because its pursuit of rigid truth did not serve the interests of established religious authority.
• The term metaphysics is criticized as a linguistic misunderstanding, where books originally titled for their physical placement are mistaken for studies of the supernatural.
• The text asserts a strictly corporeal universe, arguing that anything without magnitude or dimension is effectively nothing and exists nowhere.
• The concept of 'Abstract Essences' is dismissed as jargon that contradicts natural reason and the physical reality of the universe.

And for Geometry, till of very late times it had no place at all; as being subservient to nothing but rigide Truth.

• The author argues that words serve primarily to register thoughts and signify the relationships between different names rather than always representing physical things.
• The verb 'is' and its derivatives like 'essence' and 'entity' are merely linguistic connectors used to show that two names refer to the same subject.
• Abstract terms such as 'corporeity' or 'separated essences' are described as names of nothing, originating from a misunderstanding of how language functions.
• This linguistic confusion is exploited by certain authorities to create 'empty names' that frighten citizens into prioritizing superstitious fears over legal obedience.
• The doctrine of separated essences is blamed for irrational beliefs, such as the idea that a soul can walk apart from a body or that virtues can be literally 'poured' into a person.

It is to this purpose, that men may no longer suffer themselves to be abused, by them, that by this doctrine of Separated Essences, built on the Vain Philosophy of Aristotle, would fright them from Obeying the Laws of their Countrey, with empty names; as men fright Birds from the Corn with an empty doublet, a hat, and a crooked stick.

• The author argues that the philosophical concept of 'separated essences' undermines civil obedience by giving priests more power than sovereigns.
• Aristotle is accused of writing false philosophy regarding entities and essences merely to avoid the fate of Socrates and support existing religion.
• The text mocks the logical contradictions of incorporeal substances, such as the claim that a soul can be entirely present in a finger and yet no more present in the whole body.
• Scholastics use 'insignificant' Latin terms like 'Definitive' and 'Circumscriptive' to hide the vanity and lack of meaning in their theological distinctions.
• The author questions how an incorporeal soul can logically experience physical pain in hell or move through space if it occupies no place.
• The concept of eternity is redefined by theologians to avoid logical conflicts between God's preordaining will and His foreknowledge.

And in particular, of the Essence of a Man, which (they say) is his Soule, they affirm it, to be All of it in his little Finger, and All of it in every other Part (how small soever) of his Body; and yet no more Soule in the Whole Body, than in any one of those Parts.

• The author critiques the Scholastic concept of 'Nunc-stans' or a standing present, arguing that it is as logically impossible as a body occupying multiple places at once.
• He asserts that attempting to reason philosophically about the incomprehensible nature of God leads to endless logical contradictions and 'inconveniences.'
• The text mocks the circular reasoning of Aristotelian physics, which explains gravity by claiming heavy bodies descend because they have an 'endeavour' to be below.
• The author rejects the idea that matter can exist without a determined quantity, dismissing the Scholastic definitions of condensation and rarefaction as nonsensical.
• He compares the clumsy reasoning of philosophers to a rustic man stumbling at court, who drops his cloak and hat in a desperate, failing attempt to regain his balance.

As if Stones, and Metalls had a desire, or could discern the place they would bee at, as Man does; or loved Rest, as Man does not; or that a peece of Glasse were lesse safe in the Window, than falling into the Street.

• The author criticizes the circular reasoning of Metaphysics, where the power to act is mistakenly assigned as the cause of the act itself.
• Philosophers often use terms like 'Occult Qualities' or 'Fortune' as masks for their own ignorance regarding natural causes.
• The text argues that moral philosophy is corrupted when individuals use their private appetites rather than the public law as the measure of good and evil.
• The doctrine of clerical celibacy is dismissed as a false philosophy that wrongly equates lawful marriage with a lack of chastity.
• The author contends that subjects in a commonwealth owe the same absolute obedience to their sovereign that monks owe to their superiors.

A man might as well say, that one man maketh both a streight line, and a crooked, and another maketh their Incongruity.

• The author argues that the prohibition of marriage for priests was not based on moral purity but was a strategic move by the Church to claim the status of spiritual 'Heirs of the Kingdom of God.'
• While St. Paul recommended celibacy for practical reasons during times of persecution, later Popes institutionalized it to align the clergy with the angelic, spiritual state described in scripture.
• The text critiques the Greek philosophical tendency to label all non-popular forms of government as 'Tyranny,' arguing that such terms are often born of hatred rather than objective definition.
• The author asserts that the term 'Liberty' is often misused by those in democracies to mask their resentment of being governed by any authority other than their own will.
• A fundamental error in political philosophy is identified as the belief that laws can govern without the 'Men and Arms' necessary to enforce them, leading to perpetual civil war.

And when the same men shall be displeased with those that have the administration of the Democracy, or Aristocracy, they are not to seek for disgraceful names to expresse their anger in; but call readily the one Anarchy, and the other Oligarchy, or the Tyranny Of A Few.

• The author argues that laws are merely words and paper without the physical power of men to enforce them, and believing otherwise leads to civil instability.
• A significant error in governance is the attempt to extend legal authority over the private thoughts and consciences of men through inquisition.
• Forcing individuals to accuse themselves of opinions when their actions remain lawful is described as a violation of the Law of Nature.
• The text asserts that the interpretation of Scripture, where it functions as law, must fall under the authority of the Commonwealth rather than private individuals.
• Restricting the right to preach or teach when the sovereign has not explicitly forbidden it is viewed as an unlawful infringement on liberty.
• The writings of School-Divines are dismissed as a collection of insignificant, strange, and barbarous words that obscure true understanding.

For who is there, that knowing there is so great danger in an error, when the naturall care of himself, compelleth not to hazard his Soule upon his own judgement, rather than that of any other man that is unconcerned in his damnation?

• The author critiques the 'insignificancy' of Scholastic Latin, arguing that if theological concepts cannot be translated into modern languages, they are likely unintelligible nonsense.
• Obscure language is condemned not just for being false, but for deceiving men into believing they possess the truth, thereby halting further intellectual inquiry.
• Ecclesiastical doctrines regarding Purgatory and exorcism are dismissed as 'old wives fables' built upon unverified reports of miracles and ghosts.
• The text argues that even the most sincere Church Fathers were susceptible to fraud because good men are naturally the least suspicious of others' motives.
• The suppression of scientific truths, such as the motion of the earth, is identified as a tool used by the Church to maintain authority over reason.
• The author asserts that only civil laws, not ecclesiastical authority, should have the power to silence teachings that threaten public order or government stability.

For naturally, the best men are the least suspicious of fraudulent purposes.

• The author applies the legal principle of 'Cui Bono' to determine who benefits from the propagation of religious doctrines that undermine civil authority.
• The Church of Rome is identified as the primary author of the claim that the 'Church Militant' is the actual Kingdom of God on earth.
• By establishing this doctrine, the papacy successfully claimed a universal monarchy, convincing subjects that disobeying the Pope was equivalent to disobeying Christ.
• Even after the Reformation, some Protestant groups like the Presbytery retained the idea of a present Kingdom of Christ to maintain their own independence from civil sovereigns.
• The text argues that claiming a right to govern by divine mandate, independent of the state, is a form of usurpation born from a desire for worldly rule.

For amongst Praesumptions, there is none that so evidently declareth the Author, as doth the BENEFIT of the Action.

• The Roman and Presbyterian clergy are identified as the authors of religious darkness by seeking sovereign power over the people.
• Doctrines such as Papal infallibility and the direct appointment of bishops by the Pope are used to create a state within a state, undermining civil authority.
• The exemption of priests and monks from civil laws creates a protected class that owes its primary allegiance to a foreign power rather than their own nation.
• By defining marriage as a sacrament, the clergy gain control over the legitimacy of heirs and the succession of hereditary kingdoms.
• Auricular confession and the canonization of martyrs serve as intelligence tools and psychological leverage to incite subjects against their lawful kings.

For what is it for men to excommunicate their lawful King, but to keep him from all places of Gods publique Service in his own Kingdom?

• The Roman Clergy utilizes doctrines like Purgatory, Indulgences, and Exorcism to enrich themselves and maintain psychological awe over the populace.
• Scholastic philosophy and the 'barbarous terms' of the Schoolmen serve as a linguistic veil to protect ecclesiastical errors from being detected by the public.
• The author identifies the Pope and the Roman Clergy as the primary beneficiaries and authors of spiritual darkness under the principle of 'Cui Bono'.
• Christian sovereigns are deemed accessories to their own loss of power because they failed to prevent seditious doctrines from being taught in their own universities.
• The text suggests that political resistance to church encroachment often fails unless the subjects' eyes are first opened to the deception.
• Human inventions of power are described as a web that is eventually 'ravelled out' in an inverted order from how it was originally woven.

I blame those, that in the beginning, when their power was entire, by suffering such Doctrines to be forged in the Universities of their own Dominions, have holden the Stirrop to all the succeeding Popes, whilest they mounted into the Thrones of all Christian Soveraigns, to ride, and tire, both them, and their people, at their pleasure.

• The author describes the historical consolidation of church authority as three 'knots' tied upon Christian liberty, moving from local presbyters to provincial bishops and finally to the Roman Papacy.
• The dissolution of this power in England followed an inverse 'analysis' or resolution, starting with the removal of the Pope and followed by the dismantling of the Episcopacy.
• The current state of religious independence is framed as a return to the primitive Christian state where individuals follow ministers based on personal conscience rather than institutional coercion.
• True spiritual authority is maintained through wisdom, humility, and clear doctrine rather than the suppression of natural reason or the use of 'pious frauds.'
• The author argues that requiring a man to follow another's reason in matters of salvation is as risky as venturing one's soul on a game of 'crosse and pile.'

Which is little better, then to venture his Salvation at crosse and pile.

• The author argues that the Papacy is essentially the ghost of the deceased Roman Empire, sitting crowned upon its ruins and using its dead language.
• A detailed comparison is drawn between the ecclesiastical hierarchy and the kingdom of fairies, suggesting both operate through superstition and darkness.
• The clergy are accused of using metaphysical charms and abused scripture to deprive young men of their reason, turning them into tools for the church.
• Ecclesiastical power is described as an elusive force that avoids civil justice and uses superstitious subjects to 'pinch' or undermine secular princes.
• The universities are identified as the 'operatories' where the clergy manufacture their enchantments and maintain their pontifical discipline.

For, from the time that the Bishop of Rome had gotten to be acknowledged for Bishop Universall, by pretence of Succession to St. Peter, their whole Hierarchy, or Kingdome of Darknesse, may be compared not unfitly to the Kingdome of Fairies.

• The author draws a satirical parallel between the Roman Catholic Church and the kingdom of fairies, noting that both demand the 'cream' of the land while offering only intangible rewards.
• Ecclesiastical power is described as an illusory force that exists only in the imaginations of the ignorant, sustained by fear of excommunication and false traditions.
• There is a warning that although the 'Spirit of Rome' was cast out of England, a worse assembly of spirits might return to inhabit the 'clean swept house' if civil authority is not maintained.
• The text addresses the psychological tension between faculties like judgment and fancy, or courage and timidity, which are often seen as incompatible with civil duty.
• The author concludes that while human passions and contrary mental faculties create difficulties for social harmony, they can be reconciled through education and discipline.

But who knows that this Spirit of Rome, now gone out, and walking by Missions through the dry places of China, Japan, and the Indies, that yeeld him little fruit, may not return, or rather an Assembly of Spirits worse than he, enter, and inhabite this clean swept house, and make the End thereof worse than the beginning?

• The author argues that human nature is not inherently inconsistent with civil duties, as qualities like reason and eloquence or courage and legal fear can coexist.
• A new natural law is proposed requiring individuals to protect the authority that provides them peace, as destroying one's protector is a self-contradiction.
• The point of submission to a conqueror is defined as the moment a subject consents to the new power after losing the protection of their former sovereign.
• Ordinary subjects are justified in submitting when their means of life fall within the enemy's garrisons, as contribution is better than total loss.
• Soldiers are bound to their original power as long as it maintains an army in the field, but may seek new protection once subsistence and protection fail.

For he that pretendeth a Right of Nature to preserve his owne body, cannot pretend a Right of Nature to destroy him, by whose strength he is preserved: It is a manifest contradiction of himselfe.

• Conquest is defined not by the act of victory itself, but by the acquisition of a right over persons through their submission.
• A person is only truly conquered when they promise obedience in exchange for life and liberty, whereas those imprisoned or chained remain enemies.
• Submission to a victor can be express through a promise or tacit by living openly under the protection of the new government.
• States often fail by demanding approval of their historical origins rather than basing their right to rule on current possession and protection.
• The term tyranny is merely a word used by those angry with sovereignty, and tolerating the hatred of tyranny is equivalent to hating the commonwealth itself.

He therefore that is slain, is Overcome, but not Conquered; He that is taken, and put into prison, or chaines, is not Conquered, though Overcome; for he is still an Enemy, and may save himself if hee can.

• The author argues that in the ancient Jewish Commonwealth, God was the sovereign by pact, with Moses acting as his lieutenant on Earth.
• Capital punishment among the Israelites was a communal obligation where the people acted as executioners only after a formal conviction and sentence.
• The text refutes the 'Right of Zeal,' the dangerous idea that private individuals may kill others based on personal religious fervor without legal authority.
• Historical biblical instances of immediate execution, such as those by the Levites or Phinehas, are explained as acts either commanded by the sovereign or justified by the necessity of future ratification.
• The requirement for witnesses in Mosaic law implies a formal judicial process, thereby delegitimizing any private claim to the right of execution.

Neverthelesse, this manner of proceeding being not throughly understood, hath given occasion to a dangerous opinion, that any man may kill another, is some cases, by a Right of Zeal.

• The author argues that biblical executions, such as those for idolatry or rebellion, were acts of public law rather than expressions of private religious zeal.
• The text examines the unique nature of God's communication with Moses, suggesting that 'face to face' interaction refers to the clarity of vision rather than a literal physical encounter.
• The civil rights of sovereigns and the duties of subjects are grounded in the natural inclinations of mankind and the fundamental laws of nature.
• The author asserts that ecclesiastical power is rightfully held by the sovereign, supported by a consistent interpretation of scriptural evidence.
• The text acknowledges that readers with pre-existing ideological commitments will likely focus on finding objections rather than seeking genuine information.

For in such cases, it is naturall for men, at one and the same time, both to proceed in reading, and to lose their attention, in the search of objections to that they had read before.

• The author argues that new doctrines should be judged by their truth and tendency toward peace rather than their age or adherence to tradition.
• He defends his decision to omit citations of ancient poets and philosophers, asserting that truth depends on reason and scripture rather than the authority of writers.
• The text critiques the habit of quoting the ancients as a sign of intellectual 'indigestion' or a fraudulent attempt to mask corrupt ideas with borrowed wit.
• He redefines antiquity by noting that the present age is technically the 'oldest' and most experienced, suggesting that reverence for the dead often stems from envy of the living.
• The author concludes that his discourse should be taught in universities to ensure that the gentry and clergy spread doctrines that promote state stability and public loyalty.

It is an argument of Indigestion, when Greek and Latine Sentences unchewed come up again, as they use to doe, unchanged.

• The author asserts that the primary purpose of the work is to demonstrate the mutual relationship between protection and obedience.
• This relationship is presented as an essential requirement of human nature and both natural and divine laws.
• The text acknowledges that truths regarding state revolutions are often met with hostility by both old and new regimes.
• The author expresses hope that the work will be accepted by those who value public peace over political factionalism.
• The conclusion signals a return to the study of natural bodies, suggesting that scientific truth is less offensive than political doctrine.

And though in the revolution of States, there can be no very good Constellation for Truths of this nature to be born under, (as having an angry aspect from the dissolvers of an old Government, and seeing but the backs of them that erect a new;)